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Biology > 1 - Biological Molecules > Flashcards

1 - Biological Molecules Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Monomers

A

Smaller units from which larger molecules are made

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2
Q

Polymers

A

Molecules made from a large number of monomers joined together

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3
Q

Condensation reaction

A

Joins 2 molecules together with the formation of a chemical bond

Elimination of water

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4
Q

Hydrolysis reaction

A

Breaks a chemical bond between two molecules and involves the use of a water molecule

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5
Q

Common Monosaccharides

A

Glucose

Galactose

Fructose

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6
Q

What is formed in a condensation reaction between 2 monosaccharides?

A

Glycosidic bond

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7
Q

Maltose

A

Glucose + Glucose

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8
Q

Sucrose

A

Glucose + fructose

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9
Q

Lactose

A

Glucose + Galactose

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10
Q

How are polysaccharides formed?

A

Condensation of many glucose units

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11
Q

What types of glycogen forms glucose and starch?

A

Alpha Glucose

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12
Q

What type of glucose forms Cellulose?

A

Beta glucose

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13
Q

Formation of triglycerides

A

Condensation of one molecule of glycerol and 3 molecules of fatty acid

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14
Q

What is formed in a condensation reaction between glycerol and a fatty acid?

A

Ester bond

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15
Q

Structure of a fatty acid R group

A

Saturated or unsaturated

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16
Q

Monomer of proteins

A

Amino acids

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17
Q

What is formed in a condensation reaction between 2 amino acids?

A

Peptide bond

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18
Q

What does a functional protein contain?

A

One or more polypeptide

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19
Q

Role of an enzyme

A

Lowers the activation energy of the reaction it catalyses

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20
Q

What are ribosomes formed from?

A

RNA + proteins

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21
Q

Nucleotide structure

A

Pentose sugar

Phosphate group

Nitrogenous base

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22
Q

Structure of a DNA molecule

A

Double helix with 2 polynucleotide chains held together by hydrogen bonds between specific complementary base pairs

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23
Q

What the semi-conservative model of DNA replication ensure?

A

Genetic continuity between generations of cells

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24
Q

Structure of ATP

A

Adenine

Ribose

3x Phosphate groups

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25
Q

What can the hydrolysis of ATP be coupled with?

A

Energy-requiring reactions within cells

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26
Q

Use of inorganic phosphate released during the hydrolysis of ATP

A

Phosphorylate other compunds, often making them more reactive

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27
Q

Enzyme used in ATP hydrolysis

A

ATP hydrolase

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28
Q

Enzyme used in ATP resynthesis

A

ATP synthase

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29
Q

5 Main properties of water

A

Metabolite

Solvent

High specific heat capacity

High latent heat of vaporisation

Cohesive properties

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30
Q

Water as a metabolite

A

Water is a metabolite in many metabolic reactions, including hydrolysis and condensation

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31
Q

Water as a solvent

A

Water is an important solvent where many metabolic reactions occur

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32
Q

Water - high specific heat capacity

A

Buffers changes in temperature

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33
Q

Water - large latent heat of vaporisation

A

Provides a cooling effect with little loss of water through evaporation

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34
Q

Water - cohesive properties

A

Supports columns of water in tube-like transport cells of plants and produces surface tension where water meers air

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35
Q

Where do inorganic ions occur?

A

In the cytoplasm and body fluids of organisms

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36
Q

Biochemical test for a reducing sugar

A

Add Benedicts solution

Heat

Red = reducing sugar present

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37
Q

Biochemical test for non-reducing sugar

A

Add dilute HCl

Neutralise

Heat

Red = non-redusing sugar present

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38
Q

Emulsion test for lipids

A

Add ethanol + Shake

Add water

Milky white emulsion

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39
Q

What proteins have the tertiary structure as their final structure?

A

Proteins with only one polypeptide chain

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40
Q

What amino acids are repelled from water?

A

Hydrophobic (non-polar) amino acids

SSuch as valine and proline

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41
Q

What happens to hydrophobic amino acids?

A

They get pushed ‘inside’ the protein due to water molecules in their environment

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42
Q

Where do hydrophobic forces occur?

A

Between non-polar amino acids

43
Q

What do ionic bonds result from?

A

Electrostatic interactions between electrochemically charged side-chains of amino acids

44
Q

Role of ionic bonds in protein structure

A

Contribute to the folding process of the tertiary tructure

45
Q

What are disulfide bridges?

A

Covalent bonds which form between cysteine residues

46
Q

Cysteine

A

The only amino acid that contains sulfhydryl groups (-SH)

47
Q

What happens when 2 cysteines are in close proximity?

A

The sulfur atom of one cysteine can covalently bond with a sulfur atom of the neighboring cysteine to produce a disulfide bond

48
Q

Biuret test for proteins

A

Add NaOH to make solution alkaline

Add Copper (II) Sulphate

Purple = peptide

49
Q

Quaternary Protein structure

A

The way in which polypeptide chains come together to form the final protein structure

50
Q

How are different polypeptide chains bonded?

A

Hydrogen bonds

Covalent bonds

Ionic bonds

51
Q

homomer proteins

A

Polypeptide chains are all identical

52
Q

Heteromer proteins

A

The polypeptide chains are non-identical

53
Q

What type of protein is haemoglobin?

A

Tetrameric heteromer

54
Q

Enzymes

A

Globular proteins which play a role as biological catalysts

55
Q

How are metabolic pathways controlled?

A

enzymes in a biochemical cascade of reactions

56
Q

Intracellular enzymes

A

Produced and function inside of the cell

57
Q

Extracellular enzymes

A

Secreted by cells and catalyse reactions outside cells

58
Q

Example of an intracellular enzyme

A

Catalase

59
Q

Example of an extracellular enzyme

A

Amylase

60
Q

Role of Catalase

A

Converts hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen, preventing any damage to cells or tissues

61
Q

Why is digestion usually carried out by extracellular enzymes?

A

The macromolecules being digested are too large to enter the cell

62
Q

Role of Amylase

A

Carbohydrate digestion

Hydrolyses starch into simple sugars

63
Q

Production of Amylase

A

Secreted by salivary glands and the pancreas, for digestion of starch in the mouth and small intestine respectively

64
Q

Catabolic reactions

A

Involve the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler products

Happens when a single substrate is drawn into the active site and broken apart into 2 or more distinct molecules

65
Q

Examples of catabolic reactions

A

Cellular respiration

Hydrolysis

66
Q

Anabolic reactions

A

Building of more complex molecules from simpler ones

Draws 2 or more substrates into the active site, forming bonds between them and releasing a single product

67
Q

Examples of anabolic reactions

A

Protein synthesis

Photosynthesis

68
Q

Induced-fit m odel

A

States a substrate binds to an active site and both change shape slightly, creating an ideal fit for catalysis

69
Q

5 Factors effecting the rate of enzyme-controlled reactions

A

Enzyme conc

Substrate conc

Conc of competitive and non-competitive inhibitors

pH

Temperature

70
Q

Primary protein structure

A

Amino acid base sequence in the polypeptide chain

71
Q

Secondary protein structure

A

Folds in the polypeptide chain due to interactions between the amine and carboxyl group

alpha-helix
beta-pleated sheet

72
Q

Tertiary protein structure

A

Further folding of the secondary protein structure

73
Q

What stabalises the tertiary protein structure?

A

H-Bonds
Electrostatic forces
Disulphide linkages
Van Der Waals

74
Q

What shapes does the tertiary protein structure give rise to?

A

Fibrous
Globular

75
Q

Quaternary Protein Structure

A

3D shape - a protein made up of more than 1 polypeptide

76
Q

Process of DNA Replication

A
  1. Double Helix Unwinding
  2. Semi-Conservative Replication
  3. DNA polymerase
77
Q

Double Helix Unwinding

A

H Bonds broken

DNA helicase

78
Q

DNA helicase

A

Unwinds the DNA by breaking the H bonds between complementary base pairs on the 2 polynucleotide chains

79
Q

Why does unwinding of DNA only happen in one region of the molecule at a time?

A

Ensure stability of the molecule

80
Q

Name of the unwound region of DNA

A

Replication fork

81
Q

Semi-conservative Replication

A

Each original strand of DNA acts as a template for the synthesis of the new strands

Each new DNA molecule is made up of one parent strand and one daughter strand

82
Q

DNA polymerase

A

Catalyses condensation reactions, joining complementary nucleotides

83
Q

DNA polymerase vs DNA ligase

A

DNA polymerase reads

DNA ligase catalyses

84
Q

Use of Calcium ions in physiological functions

A

Helps insulin to be released from the pancreas

Responsible for transmitting nerve impulses

85
Q

What enzymes require calcium ions as a cofactor?

A

Enzymes involved in blood clotting

86
Q

Calcium - bones

A

Calcium ions are required for bone formation

Bones are the major store site for calcium in the body

87
Q

What part of plants does calcium make up?

A

Middle lamellae

88
Q

Middle lamella

A

A layer in plant cells that joins 2 plant cells walls together

89
Q

What is the middle lamellae made up of?

A

Calcium and Magnesium ions

90
Q

Role of Sodium Ions

A

Co-transport

Nervous system (and potassium ions)

Fluid regulation

91
Q

Sodium Ions in co-transport

A

Help molecules such as glucose and amino acids across the cell membrane in order to enter a cell

92
Q

Sodium and potassium in the nervous system

A

Communication between neurones

93
Q

Sodium in fluid regulation

A

Movement of water follows the movement of salt

When sodium Ions leave the cell, so does water, and the volume of extracellular fluid increases

94
Q

Roles of potassium ions

A

Nerve impulse and fluid balance

Muscle contraction

Photosynthesis

95
Q

Potassium ions in nerve impulse and fluid balance

A

Helps generate nerve impulses

Movement is tightly controlled to regulate fluid levels

96
Q

Potassium in photosynthesis

A

Responsible for opening and closing of the stomata in leaves, controlling CO2 intake

97
Q

Potassium in muscle contraction

A

Essential for contraction of muscle fibres

Potassium levels can affect how well key muscular organs can function

98
Q

Roles of Hydrogen ions

A

Control pH in digestion

Respiration

99
Q

Role of Hydrogen ions in digestion

A

Maintaining low pH of the gastric juices within the stomach which is important for digestion

100
Q

Role of Hydrogen ions in respiration

A

ATP synthesis in the mitochondria during cellular respiration

101
Q

Roles of Magnesium Ions

A

Cofactors

Photosynthesis

102
Q

Magnesium ions as cofactors

A

Cofactors for enzymes such as amylase and lipase which breakdown glucose and fats

103
Q

Magnesium ions in photosynthesis

A

Production of chloroplasts in plants

104
Q

Role of Ammonium ions in plants

A

Plants absorb ammonium from the soil, and is able to use the Nitrogen from it to synthesised necessary biological molecules such a as nucleic acids and amino acids

Biology (7 decks)

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