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AP Biology 2 > 1st Six Weeks > Flashcards

1st Six Weeks Flashcards

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1
Q

Functional groups

A

-Hydroxyl (-OH)
-Sulfhydryl (-SH)
-Carboxyl (-COOH or -COO-)
-Animo (-NH2 or NH3+)
Phosphate (-PO4)
-Methyl (-CH3)

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2
Q

Common Molecules

A

-Ribose
-Deoxyribose
-Glucose
-Polymers of glucose may be starch, chitin,
glycogen, etc. depending on bonding
arrangement. No need to be able to
decipher between them.
-Glycerol
-Saturated fat
-Unsaturated fat
-Cholesterol
-ATP
-DNA components: Purine, Pyrimidine, Deoxyribose (including 5’ and 3’ carbon notation)
-Phosphate: Bonds (hydrogen, phosphodiester, covalent)
-Amino acid structure
-Hemoglobin

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3
Q

Element

A

each of more than one hundred substances that cannot be chemically interconverted or broken down into simpler substances and are primary constituents of matter. Each element is distinguished by its atomic number, i.e., the number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms.

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4
Q

Atomic number

A

the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which determines the chemical properties of an element and its place in the periodic table.

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5
Q

Atomic mass

A

the mass of an atom of a chemical element expressed in atomic mass units. It is approximately equivalent to the number of protons and neutrons in the atom (the mass number) or to the average number allowing for the relative abundances of different isotopes.

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6
Q

Atoms and Bonding

A

The nucleus consists of protons and neutrons. Electrons are found in general areas with general shapes. These areas are called electron clouds. In addition, electron energy can measured as a distance from the nucleus. Energy levels and electron orbitals overlap. It is therefore possible that two electrons be at different energy levels while occupying the same orbital. The valence electrons are most significant as they are involved in bonding.

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7
Q

Carbohydrates

A

any of a large group of organic compounds occurring in foods and living tissues and including sugars, starch, and cellulose. They contain hydrogen and oxygen in the same ratio as water (2:1) and typically can be broken down to release energy in the animal body.
“water-soluble carbohydrates”

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8
Q

Lipids

A

any of a class of organic compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives and are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They include many natural oils, waxes, and steroids.

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9
Q

Nucleic Acids

A

a complex organic substance present in living cells, especially DNA or RNA, whose molecules consist of many nucleotides linked in a long chain.

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10
Q

Protein

A 
any of a class of nitrogenous organic compounds that consist of large molecules composed of one or more long chains of amino acids and are an essential part of all living organisms, especially as structural components of body tissues such as muscle, hair, collagen, etc., and as enzymes and antibodies.
proteins collectively, especially as a dietary component.
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11
Q

Exergonic vs. Exergonic

A
  • Exergonic: (of a metabolic or chemical process) accompanied by the release of energy.
  • Endergonic: (of a metabolic or chemical process) accompanied by or requiring the absorption of energy, the products being of greater free energy than the reactants
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12
Q

Glycolysis

A
  • The initial metabolic pathway of cellular respiration in which a series of reactions happening in the cytosol results in the conversion of a monosaccharide, often glucose, into pyruvic acid, and the concomitant production of a relatively small amount of high-energy molecules, such as ATP.
  • The cellular degradation of the simple sugar, glucose, to yield ATP as an energy source.
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13
Q

ATP

A
  • Abbreviation for adenosine triphosphate, empirical formula: C10H16N5O13P3
  • An organic compound composed of adenosine (an adenine ring and a ribose sugar) and three phosphate groups, hence, the name.
  • Supplement: ATP is a nucleotide that contains a large amount of chemical energy stored in its high-energy phosphate bonds. It releases energy when it is broken down (hydrolyzed) into ADP (or Adenosine Diphosphate). The energy is used for many metabolic processes. Hence, ATP is considered as the universal energy currency for metabolism. ATP is produced via cellular respiration in the mitochondria and photosynthesis in chloroplasts. Its functions are for intracellular energy transport for various metabolic processes including biosynthetic reactions, motility, and cell division. It is also used as a substrate by kinases that phosphorylate proteins and lipids, and by adenylate cyclase to produce cyclic AMP.
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14
Q

Cellular Respiration: Step 1 - Glycolysis

A
  • Activation energy input: The cell uses 2 molecules of ATP as activation energy to rearrange the glucose molecule into another 6-carbon molecule called fructose diphosphate (aka fructose biphosphate) which can be split into two 3-carbon molecules
  • Splitting the fructose: The fructose biphosphate can be split into two 3-carbon molecules of PGAL (G-3-P). Energy can be harvested easily from PGAL.
  • Harvesting the energy: The energy is captured:
    • 2 molecules of ADP are used to create 2 molecules of 2 ATP. This is referred to as substrate level phosphorylation
    • 2 more ADP and 2 NAD+ molecules are used to make 2 molecules of NADH and 2 additional molecules of ATP
    • 2 pyruvate (pyruvic acid) molecules remain, and these pyruvate molecules contain most of the original energy that was present in the original glucose molecule. The purpose of aerobic cellular respiration is to harvest as much of the energy in the two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules as possible.
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15
Q

Cellular Respiration- Glycolysis Summary

A

Glyco- (sugar or glucose) and -lysis (break down). Glycolysis does not require oxygen, it occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell, and it’s the one metabolic pathway that is found in all living organisms. Four molecules of ATP are produced in glycolysis, but two ATP must be used in the activation energy input. The net yield is only 2 ATPs. If oxygen is not present, anaerobic fermentation reactions allow glycolysis to continue to produce ATP by recycling NADH to NAD+.

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16
Q

Oxidation

A

Any chemical reaction in which a material gives up electrons, as when the material combines with oxygen

O.I.L. : Oxidation is Losing

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17
Q

Reduction

A

Any chemical reaction in which the atoms in a material take on electrons. Note: Reduction is the opposite of oxidation.

R.I.G.: Reduction is Gaining

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18
Q

Cellular Respiration

A

The chemical process that generates most of the energy in the cell, supplying molecules needed to make the metabolic reactions (see metabolism) of an organism run. Note: The main carrier of energy in metabolism is the molecule ATP.

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19
Q

Reaction

A

Substrate molecule binds with active site of enzyme molecule; Reaction occurs and product molecules are generated

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20
Q

Inhibition

A

Inhibitor molecules bind with active site of the enzyme molecule; Inhibitor molecule prevents the binding of substrate molecule

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21
Q

Electrons

A

THEY HAVE POTENTIAL ENERGY, regardless of charge.

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22
Q

Reducing agent vs. Oxidizing Agent

A

Electron donor and Electron receiver (i.e. Oxygen)

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23
Q

Electronegative

A

containing negative electricity; tending to migrate to the positive pole in electrolysis.
assuming negative potential when in contact with a dissimilar substance.

More electronegative = loses potential energy

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24
Q

Oxidation of organic compounds

A

Breaking down

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25
Q

Molecular Oxygen

A

O2 takes in electrons (electronegative)

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26
Q

C6H12O6 -> C6H11O6

A

Glucose becomes oxidized. The hydrogen was lost because of the electrons due to the oxidation-reduction.

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27
Q

NADH and NAD+

A

NADH has more chemical energy has more NAD+

28
Q

Electron Transport Chain

A

OXYGEN WANTS ELECTRONS

29
Q

What is part of the enzyme?

A

Substrate-level phosphorylation

30
Q

What does glycolysis yield?

A

2 NADH
2 pyruvate
2 ATPs

31
Q

Molecule gains phosphate…

A

Increased chemical energy

32
Q

Investment phase and Payoff phase

A 
Investment = stored
Payoff = net increase
33
Q

Photosynthesis

A

The conversion of light energy to chemical energy that is stored in sugars or other organic compounds; occurs in plants, algae, and certain prokaryotes

34
Q

Autotrophs

A

An organism that obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms or substances derived from other organisms. Autotrophs use energy from the sun or from oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules from inorganic ones.

35
Q

Heterotrophs

A

An organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or substances derived from them

36
Q

Mesophyll

A

Leaf cells specialized from photosynthesis. In CAM plants, mesophyll cells are located between the upper and lower epidermis; in C4 plants, they are located between the bundle-sheath cells and the epidermis

37
Q

Stomata (stoma - singular)

A

A microscopic pore surrounded by guard cells in the epidermis of leaves and stems that allows gas exchange between the environment and the interior of the plant

38
Q

Stroma

A

The dense fluid within the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid membrane and containing ribosomes and DNA; involved in the synthesis organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water

39
Q

Thylakoid

A

A flattened, membranous sac inside a chloroplast. Thylakoids often exist in stacks called grana that are interconnected; their membranes contain molecular “machinery” used to convert light energy to chemical energy

40
Q

Grana (singular - granum)

A

A stack of membrane-bounded thylakoids in the chloroplast. Grana function in the light reactions of photosynthesis

41
Q

Chlorophyll

A

A green pigment located in membranes within the chloroplasts of plants and algae and in the membranes of certain prokaryotes. Chlorophyll a participates directly in the light reactions, which convert solar energy to chemical energy

42
Q

NADP+

A

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, an electron acceptor that, as NADPH, temporarily stores energized electrons produced during the light reactions

43
Q

Photophosphorylation

A

The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of chemiosmosis, using a proton-motive force generated across the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast or the membrane of certain prokaryotes during the light reactions of photosynthesis

44
Q

Carbon fixation

A

The initial incorporation of carbon from CO2 into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism (a plant, another photosynthetic organism, or a chemoautotrophic prokaryote)

45
Q

Wavelength

A

The distance between crests of waves, such as those of the electromagnetic spectrum

46
Q

Electromagnetic spectrum

A

The entire spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, ranging in wavelength from less than a nanometer to more than a kilometer

47
Q

Visible light

A

That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that can be detected as various colors by the human eye, ranging in wavelength from about 380 nm to about 750nm

48
Q

Photons

A

a quantum, or discrete quantity, of light energy that behaves as if it were a particle

49
Q

Photosystem

A

a light-capturing unit located in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast or in the membrane of some prokaryotes, consisting of a reaction-center complex surrounded by numerous light-harvesting complexes. There are two types of photosystems, I and II; they absorb light best at different wavelengths

50
Q

Reaction-center complex

A

a complex of proteins associated with a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor. Located centrally in a photosystem, this complex triggers the light reactions of photosynthesis. Excited by light energy, the pair of chlorophyll donates an electron to the primary electron acceptor, whiches passes an electron to an electron transport chain

51
Q

Light-harvesting complex

A

a complex of proteins associated with pigment molecules (including chlorophyll a and b) that captures light energy and transfers it to reaction-center pigments in a photosystem

52
Q

Photosystem II (PS II)

A

one of two light-capturing units in a chloroplast’s thylakoid membrane or in the membrane of some prokaryotes; it has two molecules of P680 chlorophyll a at its reaction center

53
Q

Photosystem I (PS I)

A

a light-capturing unit in a chloroplast’s thylakoid membrane or in the membrane of some prokaryotes; it has two molecules of P700 chlorophyll a at its reaction center

54
Q

Linear electron flow

A

a route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems (I and II) and produces ATP, NADPH, and O2. The net electron flow is from H2O to NADP+

55
Q

Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)

A

a three-carbon carbohydrate that is the direct product of the Calvin cycle; it is also an intermediate in glycolysis

56
Q

Rubisco

A

carboxylase, the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of the Calvin cycle (the addition of CO2 to RuBP)

57
Q

PEP carboxylase

A

an enzyme that adds CO2 to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to form oxaloacetate in mesophyll cells of C4 plants. It acts prior to photosynthesis

58
Q

CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) plant

A

a plant that uses crassulacean acid metabolism, an adaptation for photosynthesis in arid conditions. In this process, carbon dioxide entering open stomata during the night is converted to organic acids, which release CO2 for the Calvin cycle during the day, when stomata are closed

59
Q

Steps of Light Reactions: PEPAN

A
  1. Photons excite a pair of electrons in reaction center. (PS II)
  2. “Energized” electrons pass through electron transport chain to make proton pump. (PS II)
  3. Proton pump create hydrogen ions, making electrochemical gradient. (PS II)
  4. ATP is produced when ADP and Pi join by means of hydrogen ions moving through ATP synthase. (PS II)
  5. NADPH is formed from hydrogen ions and NADP+, an electron carrier. (PS I)
60
Q

Steps of Light Reactions: PEPAN

A
  1. Photons excite a pair of electrons in reaction center. (PS II)
  2. “Energized” electrons pass through electron transport chain to make proton pump. (PS II)
  3. Proton pump create hydrogen ions, making electrochemical gradient. (PS II)
  4. ATP is produced when ADP and Pi join by means of hydrogen ions moving through ATP synthase. (PS II)
  5. NADPH is formed from hydrogen ions and NADP+, an electron carrier. (PS I)
61
Q

Photorespiration

A

A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen and ATP, releases carbon dioxide, and decreases photosynthetic output. Photorespiration generally occurs on hot, dry, bright day, when stomata close and the O2/CO2 ratio in the leaf increases, favoring the binding of O2 rather than CO2 by rubisco

62
Q

Light reactions

A

the first of two major stages in photosynthesis (preceding the Calvin cycle). These reactions, which occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast or on membranes of certain prokaryotes, convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH, releasing oxygen in the process

63
Q

Calvin cycle

A

the second of two major stages in photosynthesis (following the light reactions), involving fixation of atmospheric CO2 and reduction of the fixed carbon into carbohydrate

64
Q

Dehydration reaction

A

A chemical reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule

65
Q

RuBP

A

Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate is an organic substance that is involved in photosynthesis

66
Q

Calvin Cycle

A
  1. RuBP: With the aid of the enzyme Rubisco, RuBP (5-C compound) captures CO2 and surrounding H+ to form an unstable 6-C compound.
  2. Two 3-C PGA: The 6-carbon compound immediately splits into two 3-C PGA molecules.
  3. PGAL: Electrons and energy from NADPH and ATP created in the light dependent reactions is used to convert PGA to form G-3-P (PGAL)
  4. 6-C glucose: Two molecules of 3-C G-3-P are used to form a molecule of 6-C glucose

AP Biology 2 (16 decks)

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