18. Data Analysis

Question 1

Collection of Quantitative data from observations

Answer 1

• If you’ve got Quantitative data (numbers), you can use statistics to show, for eg, the most common behaviours.
• Quantitative data can be obtained by categorising & rating behaviour

Question 2

Collection of Qualitative data from observations

Answer 2

• Qualitative data might consist of a video or audio recording, or written notes on what the observers witnessed.
• Analysis of Qualitative data is less straightforward, but still doable.

Question 3

Important issues to remember for any kind of data (qualitative or quantitative) obtained from observations

Answer 3

1. There must be adequate data sampling to ensure that a representative sample of P’s behaviour has been seen.
2. Language must be used accurately - words used to describe behaviour should be accurate/appropriate (must have valid operationalised definitions)
3. Researcher bias must be avoided - shouldn’t make notes only on events that support the researchers’ theories, or have biased interpretations of what is observed.

Question 4

Collection of Quantitative data from interviews

Answer 4

• When closed questions are used as part of an interview’s structure, quantitative data can be produced (eg. the no. of P’s who replied ‘yes’ to a particular qu).
• Statistics can then be used further analyse the data.

Question 5

Collection of Qualitative data from interviews

Answer 5

• When open questions are used, more detailed, qualitative data is obtained.

Question 6

Important issue to remember for any kind of data (quantitative or qualitative) obtained from interviews

Answer 6

1. Context - the situation in which a P says smth, & the way they are behaving at the time, may be important. It may help the researcher understand why smth is said & give clues abt the honesty of a statement.
2. The researcher should clearly distinguish what is said by the P from how they interpret it.
3. Selection of data - lots of qualitative data may be produced by an interview, which may be difficult for the researcher to summarise in a report. The researcher must avoid bias in selecting what to include (eg. only including statements that support their ideas).
4. Interviewer should be aware of how THEIR feelings abt the interviewee could lead to biased interpretations.

Question 7

Data collected from Questionnaires

Answer 7

• Like observations & interviews, questionnaires can give both quantitative & qualitative data (so theyre relevant to precious points).
• Again, its especially important to distinguish the interpretations of the researcher from the statements of the P, & to be unbiased in selecting what to include in any report.
• HOWEVER, the analysis of written answers may be especially difficult bc the P is not present to clarify any ambiguities, & also you dont know the context for their answers (eg. their mood at the time).

Question 8

Analysis of Quantitative & Qualitative data

Answer 8

• Once Quantitative data is collected, it can be easily & objectively analysed.
• HOWEVER, Qualitative data (like an interview transcript) is sometimes seen as ‘of limited use’ bc its difficult to analyse objectively.

Question 9

Way of analysing Qualitative data

Answer 9

Thematic analysis

Question 10

What is Thematic analysis

Answer 10

• Thematic analysis is a form of qualitative analysis - it involves subjective decisions.
• It is one of the most frequently used forms of qualitative analysis. It involves making summaries of data & identifying key themes & categories.

1. Firstly, researcher becomes familiar w the data. Then they start to look for diff themes, review the themes, define & name the themes & then write a report.
2. HOWEVER, diff researchers may read diff things into the themes - it can be subjective.
3. Such analysis may give the basis for hypotheses (eg. abt what may be found in other sources/other things the P may say) - the hypothesis formation is therefore grounded in the data (but could this be subjective).

Question 11

STRENGTHS of Thematic analysis

Answer 11

1. Qualitative analysis preserves the detail in the data.
2. Creating hypotheses during the analysis allows for new insights to be developed.
3. Some objectivity can be established by using triangulation - other sources of data are used to check conclusions (Eg. previous interviews). With more sources, researches can cross-check their interpretations.

Question 12

CRITICISMS of Thematic analysis

Answer 12

1. How do you decide which categories to use & whether a statement fits a particular category?
2. How do you decide what to leave out of the summary, or which quotation to use?

These are subjective decisions & researchers may be biased, possibly showing statements or events out of context.

Question 13

Way to quantify Qualitative data

Answer 13

Content analysis

Question 14

What is Content analysis

Answer 14

• Bc the detail (& hence the insight) that Qualitative data can give, some researchers avoid reducing it to numbers.
• Instead, they analyse the data into categories or ‘typologies’ (eg. sarcastic remarks, statement abt feelings), quotations, summaries, etc
• This is called CONTENT ANALYSIS
• Hypotheses may be developed during this analysis so that they are ‘grounded in the data’.

Question 15

Method of Content analysis

Answer 15

1. A representative sample of Qualitative data is first collected - eg. from interview, etc
2. Coding units are identified to analyse the data. A coding unit could be, for eg, an act of violence, or the use of gender stereotypes (these must be given valid operationalised definitions first).
3. The Qualitative data is then analysed to see how often each coding unit occurs (or how much is said abt it).
4. Statistical analysis can then be carried out.

Question 16

STRENGTHS of Content analysis

Answer 16

• A clear summary of the patterns in the data may be established.
• Once a coding system has been set up, replication is easy, improving reliability.

Question 17

LIMITATIONS of Content analysis

Answer 17

• Often an individual’s judgement is used to define coding units, so they can be subjective
• Reducing the data to particular coding units removes detail, & the true meaning of things may be lost when taken out of context.

Question 18

ADVANTAGES of quantifying data

Answer 18

1. It becomes easier to see patterns in the data, & easier to summarise & present it.
2. Statistical analysis can be carried out.

Question 19

DISADVANTAGES of quantifying data

Answer 19

1. Care is needed to avoid bias in defining coding units, or deciding which behaviours fit particular units.
2. Qualitative data has more detail (eg. context), which is lost when its converted into numbers.

Question 20

What types of data do researchers gather when they collect results

Answer 20

Primary & secondary

Question 21

What is Primary data

Answer 21

Information collected during a researcher’s direct observations of P’s, eg test results, answers to questionnaires, observation notes.

Question 22

What is Secondary data

Answer 22

Information collected from other studies. This data can be used to check the validity of studies, or used to provide evidence to support or discredit a new theory.

Question 23

What is a Meta-analysis

Answer 23

• Both quantitative & qualitative data can be analysed using a Meta-analysis. This is where you analyse the results from many diff studies & come up w some general conclusions.

Question 24

BENEFITS of a Meta-analysis

Answer 24

• Theyre a good way of bringing together data (which is a general aim of the scientific process), & by doing this they reduce the problem of sample size.

Question 25

PROBLEM with a Meta-analysis

Answer 25

• There are often lots of conflicting results out there, which of course makes doing a Meta-analysis difficult.