3. Observational Techniques Flashcards
Types of observations
- Naturalistic observation
- Controlled observation
- Participant observation
- Non-participant observation
- Covert observation
- Overt observation
What is a Naturalistic observation
- Involves observing subjects in their natural environment, where everything has been left as it is normally.
- Researchers take great care NOT to interfere in any way w the subjects theyre studying.
STRENGTHS of Naturalistic observations
- High ecological validity - the participants’ behaviour is natural & there are no demand characteristics, as P is unaware of being observed.
- Theory development - can be a useful way of developing ideas abt behaviour that could be tested in more controlled conditions later.
WEAKNESSES of Naturalistic observations
- Extraneous variables - cant control variables that may affect behaviour.
- Observer bias - observers’ expectations may affect what they focus on/record. Meaning reliability of results may be a problem.
- Ethics - you should only conduct observations where ppl might expect to be observed by strangers. This limits situations you can conduct naturalistic observations. Also, debriefing & getting informed consent can be difficult.
What is a Controlled observation
- Where the situation is carried out in conditions set up by the researcher.
Research has some measure of control over environment
Eg: Bandura’s Bobo Doll
STRENGTHS of Controlled observations
- Variables are more controlled, less extraneous variables, so its possible to establish cause & effect.
- Also means it can be replicated, to check results are reliable, due to high control
WEAKNESSES of Controlled observations
- Lower ecological validity than naturalistic observations - less realistic environment.
- P’s may behave differently if they know theyre being observed (Hawthorne effect).
What is a Participant observation
When the research participates in the activity under study.
ADVANTAGES of Participant observations
- Researcher develops a relationship w the group under study, so they can gain a greater understanding of the group’s behaviour. Increases validity.
DISADVANTAGES of Participant observations
- Researcher loses objectivity by becoming part of the group.
- P’s may act differently if they know a researcher is amongst them
What is a Non-participant observation
When the researcher observes the activity w/o getting involved in it.
ADVANTAGES of Non-participant observations
- Researcher can remain objective throughout the study
DISADVANTAGES of Non-participant observations
- Researcher loses a sense of the group dynamics by staying separate from the group
What are structured observations
- Sometimes researchers undertake structured observations.
- This is where the behaviour categories that are going to be used are defined in advance.
ADVANTAGES of structured observations
- Its easier to gather relevant data bc you already know what you’re looking for.
DISADVANTAGES of structured observations
- Interesting behaviours could go unrecorded bc they havent been pre-defined as important.
Participant & Non-participant observations can be
- Overt
OR - Covert
What are Overt observations
Where the researcher’s presences is obvious to the P’s
Overt -> Obvious
ADVANTAGES of Overt observations
- Much more ethical than other methods bc the P’s are aware of the research.
DISADVANTAGES of Overt observations
- Ppl might change their behaviour if they know theyre being observed (demand characteristics).
What are Covert observations
Where the researcher’s presence is unknown to the P’s
ADVANTAGES of Covert observations
- P’s are much more likely to behave naturally, less demand characteristics.
DISADVANTAGES of Covert observations
- Ethical issues as P’s do not know theyre being observed. Gaining ethical approval may be difficult
Structuring of Naturalistic observations
- Naturalistic observations take place in a natural environment, rather than a lab.
- They can be structured in advance to make sure no behaviours are missed.
- Naturalistic observations involves making design decisions.
What are the design decisions for observational studies
- Recording data
- Categorising behaviour
- Rating behaviour
- Sampling behaviour
- Inter-observer reliability
Design decisions: Recording data
If you want qualitative data you could just make written notes. BUT video or audio recording means that you have a more accurate permanent record.
Design decisions: Categorising behaviour
- You must define the behaviours you aim to observe (eg. if you were going to observe children in a schl playground to see how many behave aggressively, you’d have to decide what counts as aggression).
- This involves giving an operationalised definition (ie. some specific, observable behaviours (kicking, punching)).
- BUT you must be careful not to miss out anything important otherwise your definition may not be valid. (eg. aggression can also be verbal).
Design decisions: Rating behaviour
- The behaviours that you’re interested in may be things that are a matter of degree, so you might need to use a rating scale to classify behaviour.
- You could put each P’s behaviour into one of several categories (eg. not aggressive, mild, very).
- OR you could use a coding system where each P is given a number (eg. 1-10) to represent how aggressive they are, where a higher score indicates more aggression.
- However, you still must define what kinds of behaviour are included for each no. on the scale (eg. 5=pushing, 10=kicking more than once). Behaviour rates in this way provides quantitative data.
Design decisions: Sampling behaviour
- You must decide how often & for how long you’re going to observe the P’s.
Event sampling: when you only record particular events that you’re interested in (eg. aggression shown by children) & ignore other behaviours.
ADVANTAGES: researchers know exactly what behaviours theyre looking for.
DISADVANTAGES: potentially interesting behaviours could be ignored.
Time-interval sampling: if the behaviours occur over a long time period, you may choose to observe for only set time intervals (eg. first 10mins of every hr). The time intervals could be chosen randomly.
ADVANTAGES: very convenient for the researchers to carry out.
DISADVANTAGES: if interesting behaviours occur outside the sample intervals they wont be recorded.
Design decisions: Inter-observer reliability
- Even after you’ve defined the behaviours you’re interested in, you have to make sure that the observers are actually putting each P in the right category or giving the right rating.
- This might involve comparing the data from 2 or more overseers to make sure theyre giving the same scores.
