1.6: Liberalism

Question 1

What is Liberalism?

Answer 1

LIBERALISM

• Reaction to the rule of monarchies and aristocratic privilege and the educated middle classes who sought wider civil liberties and opportunities to better themselves.
• Part of the Enlightenment movement that rejected traditional social, political and religious ideas, instead of stressing the power of reason and the importance of tolerance and freedom from tyranny.
• People should make their own decisions to make the most of their talents and opportunities.

Question 2

What are the different strands of Liberalism?

Answer 2

LIBERALISM

1. Classical Liberalism
   a) These political ideas are associated with the age of Enlightenment in the 18th century.
   - This was when rationalistic ideas of science and philosophy challenged the traditional religious order and divinely ordained monarchial government.
   b) Their ideas can be summarised as:
   - Government by consent.
   - Guarantee of individual freedom.
   - Representative democracy.
   - A limited role for the state within society and the economy.
   - Individuals are born with natural rights.
2. Modern Liberalism
   a) Argued for an increased role of the state within society and the economy.
   - This enhanced individual freedom and was a logical continuation of the ideas of classical liberalism.
   - Although for neo-liberals, this was a betrayal of classical liberalism’s core ideas.
   b) Liberal democracy is the most influential ideology in the modern world.

Question 3

What are the 6 core ideas and principles of Liberalism?

Answer 3

6 CORE IDEAS AND PRINCIPLES OF LIBERALISM

1. Individualism
2. Freedom/Liberty
3. The State (a necessary evil)
4. Rationalism
5. Equality and social justice
6. Liberal Democracy

Question 4

What is the principle of Individualism?

Answer 4

INDIVIDUALISM PRINCIPLE
1. The primacy of the individual in society
over any group or collective body.
a) EXAMPLE. Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) argued that all individuals are unique and have equal worth.
- People should not be treated as instruments to achieve a particular goal but should be regarded as possessing their own intrinsic value.
- ‘Categorical Imperative’ = an absolute moral requirement to perform an action for its own sake rather than for any gain.

2. Foundational Equality (all liberals)
   a) A fundamental belief that all individuals are born with natural rights which entitle them to liberty, the pursuit of happiness and avoidance of pain.
   - In a liberal state this translate to the rule of law, where all individuals are treated equally under the law.
   b) EXAMPLE. John Locke believed that man’s natural state was one of freedom and in particular freedom from unnecessary external interference by the state.
   c) EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill also perceived individuals as capable of intellectually informed ideas but as self-interested and mutually indifferent to each other.
3. Classical Liberalism
   a) An individual’s primary motivation is for egotistical individualism.
   - The belief that individual freedom is associated with a rational sense of self-reliance and self-interest
   - This maximises their own utility (personal worth or value) so that they can thrive.
   b) The freedom of the individual is sacrosanct.
   - Society would be atomistic (a collection of autonomous individuals).
   c) The state should respect formal equality
   - This includes equality under the law but also the principle that every individual is entitled to equal treatment in society (equality of opportunity and the abolition of artificial social distinction such as gender inequality).
   - The state should be therefore small and limited to maintaining law and order and protecting society from invasion so it does not infringe on individual freedom and respects formal equality (negative freedom).
   d) Human rights to ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’ in the American Declaration of Independence should be upheld and protected by the state.
4. Modern Liberalism
   a) EXAMPLE. T.H Green (1836 - 1882) was an early advocate of modern liberalism, who argued for positive freedom whereby the state practices a form of developmental individualism to help make society a fairer place.
   b) Modern liberals can broadly agree with classical liberals on the concept of self-reliance but argue that the state must offer a ‘hand-up’ if every individual is to achieve this goal.
   c) The influence of modern liberalism’s ideas of developmental individualism can be seen in the expansion of state involvement and welfare provision in Western democracies after WW2.
   d) Modern liberals would agree that ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’ are human rights.
   - However, classical liberals argue for a minimal state to ensure these values.
   - Modern liberals believe that only an interventionist state can guarantee such freedoms.
   e) Modern Liberals argues that classical liberalism underplays the inequality of society.
   - Society is not equal and some individuals have a distinct advantage over others.
   - Ideas that individuals are autonomous are overstated.
   f) Individuals can have both innate advantages and disadvantages that play a sizeable role in their eventual fate.
   - Negative freedom practised by classical liberalism only exacerbates these inequalities rather than addressing them.
   - Modern Liberalism, therefore, critiques classical liberalism’s egotistical individualism.
   - EXAMPLE. John Rawls argued that one’s societal position and particular circumstances (race, gender, social class, innate intelligence…) were huge factors in determining whether an individual thrived or underachieved within society.
5. Tolerance
   a) A willingness to accept values, customs and beliefs with which one disagrees.
   b) EXAMPLE. John Locke wrote in the 1600s of respecting alternative religious and political views.
   c) EXAMPLE. Mary Wollstonecraft and Betty Friedan argued for a tolerance of men toward women, calling an end to sexual discrimination.
   d) In the 21st century individual tolerance has been extended towards homosexuality and transgendered individuals.

Question 5

What’s the difference between Foundational and Formal Equality, Equality of Opportunity as well as Egoistical and Developmental Individualism?

Answer 5

EQUALITY

1. Equality
   a) Foundational Equality
   - A fundamental belief that all individuals are born with natural rights which entitle them to liberty, the pursuit of happiness and avoidance of pain.
   - In a liberal state this translate to the rule of law, where all individuals are treated equally under the law.
   b) Formal Equality
   - This includes equality under the law but also the principle that every individual is entitled to equal treatment in society (equality of opportunity and the abolition of artificial social distinction such as gender inequality).
   c) Equality of Opportunity
   - All liberals accept that inequality is inevitable in a free society.
   - Modern liberals argue for equality of opportunity by enabling all citizens to have access to education and for society to be truly meritocratic.
2. Individualism
   a) Egoistical Individualism
   - The belief that individual freedom is associated with a rational sense of self-reliance and self-interest.
   b) Developmental Individualism
   - Both classical and modern liberals think that individuals must help themselves to improve.
   - Classical liberals think the state should interfere as little as possible in this process.
   - Modern liberals believe that the state, by intervening can assist in an individuals development (state-run education).

Question 6

What is the principle of Freedom/Liberty?

Answer 6

FREEDOM/LIBERTY PRINCIPLE

1. Classical Liberals
   a) Atomistic view of freedom, made up of individuals with their own interests.
   b) There is no broader ‘public interest’ or ‘common good’ that individuals have to serve.
   c) People success or fail in society on their own efforts.
   d) The state should not provide welfare as this will create a ‘dependency culture’.
   e) This rugged individualism will make society more dynamic as individuals have to succeed on their own merits and efforts.
2. Modern Liberals
   a) Greater focus on positive freedoms.
   - Such as the state has a moral right to educate individuals (John Stuart Mill).
   b) EXAMPLE. T.H. Green broadened Mill’s ideas when he argued that society was organic and not atomistic.
   - There was a common good and that public interest coexisted with individual interest.
   - Limited state intervention was necessary to facilitate developmental individualism, which would increase the individual’s capacity to be free.
   - Green argued that the negative freedom of classical liberalism focused on freedom from the state, but did not recognise that freedom could be threatened by social and material disadvantage within society and the economy.
   - Green supported positive freedom that allowed individuals to achieve their aspirations by the state assisting their development.
   c) EXAMPLE. John Rawls argued for a larger role of the state in society and the economy.
   - This ‘enabling state’ would ensure an individual’s life chances were not determined by their status at birth.
   - These levels of intervention would involve more taxation and state spending to ensure equality of opportunity via developmental individualism.
   d) EXAMPLE. Carol Pateman (1940) and others have criticised liberalism for having a conception of freedom that is male-centric to the exclusion of women.
   - Although this is perhaps unfair as liberalism has acknowledged female rights.
   - EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill’s ‘The Subjection of Women (1869)’ argues that votes for women decades before enfranchisement was achieved.
   - EXAMPLE. Mary Wollstonecraft championed formal equality in society, in terms of women pursuing a career, playing a role in the economy and having property rights. She argued that women are equally as rational as men as ‘the mind has no gender’ yet women have been denied the same opportunities which makes them appear unequal.
   - EXAMPLE. Betty Friedan championed equality of opportunity to a far greater and more explicit sense than Wollstonecraft.
3. EXAMPLE. John Locke (Early Liberalism)
   a) Early liberals resented how authoritarian government and absolute monarchies retained full legitimacy, often at the expense of their subjects’ freedom.
   b) Freedom is therefore intimately connected with the law.
   - “Where there is no law, there is no liberty”.
   c) Freedom is a natural right.
   - The role of government was the protection of man’s right to “life, liberty and estate”.
   - The state needed to mediate between competing individuals to enforce order, to protect property rights and prevent a breach of contracts and fraud.
   d) Absolute monarchies were illegitimate and the state should be constructed by a social contract.
   - This idea was based on the rationalistic proposition that individuals would enter into a social contract to allow the state to act as a neutral umpire to resolve clashes.
   - If the state broke the contract by not protecting or enhancing natural rights then the people were within their rights to withdraw their consent and replace the government (accountability).
   - EXAMPLE. The American Revolution was a time when there was a broken contract between the ruled and the rulers.
   e) The state would practise limited government so that the individual might enjoy the maximum amount of freedom within a legal framework.
   - This gave heavy emphasis to the economic sphere of society and the doctrine laissez-faire capitalism as advocated by Adam Smith in ‘The Wealth of Nations (1776)’.
4. EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill
   a) Negative freedom in advocating freedom of speech thought and religion unless these pose a direct threat to others.
   b) Using the harm principle, individuals should be free from interference even if this means that they are harming themselves (suicide should not be criminalised).
   - Contemporary neo-liberals use Mill’s idea to justify why individuals should be free to take drugs that are currently illegal, arguing that it is their choice and not the states.
5. EXAMPLE. Jeremy Bentham (1748 - 1832) on Utilitarianism.
   a) He argued that human actions are motivated by a desire to pursue pleasure and avoid pain.
   - The government should not prevent people from doing what they choose unless their actions threaten others’ ability to do the same for themselves.
   b) A mechanistic view of human behaviour that saw people as driven by rational self-interest.
   - This could mean that the interests of minorities are overridden by those of the majority.

Question 7

What is the Social Contract?

Answer 7

SOCIAL CONTRACT

• The state is based on a contract between the government and the people.
• The government agrees to make it accountable to the people and to operate within the law, while the people should consent to obey the laws and uphold the security of the state.

Question 8

What is the difference between Laissez-faire Capitalism and Keynesianism?

Answer 8

CAPITALISM

1. Laissez-faire Capitalism
   a) A principle mostly associated with the role of the state within a capitalist economy, which proposes that capitalism and wealth creation are enhanced if the state does not interfere with the markets for goods, services and labour.
   - EXAMPLE. Advocated by Adam Smith in ‘The Wealth of Nations (1776)’.
2. Keynesianism
   a) A system of economic management where the state (government) directly intervenes to stimulate the economy to achieve full employment and economic growth.

Question 9

What is the difference between Positive and Negative Freedom?

Answer 9

FREEDOMS

1. Positive Freedom
   a) A concept of freedom which sees the state play a positive role to assist individuals to achieve their dreams and aspirations and develop as individuals.
   - EXAMPLE. A state-funded education system.
   b) Modern liberals prefer positive freedom and an enabling state.
2. Negative Freedom
   a) A concept of freedom that defines itself as an absence of constraint.
   b) EXAMPLE. Liberal philosopher Isiah Berlin (1909 - 1997) described it as ‘freedom from’ rather than ‘freedom to’.
   c) Advocates of negative freedom want freedom from government interference wherever possible.
   d) Classical liberals and neo-liberals prefer negative freedom and a minimal state.

Question 10

What is the principle of The state (a necessary evil’)?

Answer 10

PRINCIPLE OF THE STATE (A NECESSARY EVIL)

1. Classical Liberalism
   a) As the state is a necessary evil, there should be a minimal state to protect ‘life, liberty and estate’.
   - The state must also intervene to uphold the rule of law and to protect society from foreign invasion.
   - Although classical liberals advocate egoistical individualism and laissez-faire, it never went as far as individualistic anarchism in arguing that there should be no state at all.
   - EXAMPLE. John Locke disagreed with the ‘divine rights of kings’ instead of arguing for a government by consent and a state based on rational ideas (a constitutional government would replace an arbitrary government).
   b) Limit government in 3 ways:
   - By Limiting Power.
   - By limiting jurisdiction.
   - By limiting the electorate.
   c) By Limiting Power
   - Power should be divided between different branches of government with a separation of powers (Montesquieu) as a legislative, executive and judiciary.
   - Each branch would have the ability to act as a check on the others.
   - The state should be based on Locke’s principle of ‘government by consent’ through constitutional agreements and a government that is accountable to the people by regular elections.
   - These principles influenced the creation of the US constitution.
   d) By limiting jurisdiction
   - Individuals should be protected by law from actions that might harm their individual liberty.
   - Economically, the state should protect their property rights, oversee the enforcement of legal contracts by the law and regulate monopoly power.
   - The state should operate under the rule of law, whereby all citizens would enjoy foundational equality.
   e) By limiting the electorate
   - Classical liberals were in favour of representative democracy rather than a direct, popular democracy.
   - EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill believed that only those with an appropriate formal education should be allowed to vote and feared that a popular majority might lead to a ‘tyranny of the majority’.
2. Modern Liberalism
   a) EXAMPLE. In John Stuart Mill’s later writings he adapted his views to allow for state intervention to assist the poor who were experiencing injustice in society and the economy.
   - T.H. Green continued to reinterpret the role of the state so that it had a larger role.
   b) The state should promote equality of opportunity through education and reductions in the influence of inherited privilege.
   - The state should organise welfare to help those unable to defend themselves against deprivation.
   c) EXAMPLE. John Maynard Keynes (1883 - 1946) in ‘The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money’ was a rational construct that argued against Smith’s laissez-faire economics.
   - The state was capable of managing the economy so as to secure full employment.
   - Keynes wanted to rectify the negative consequences of an economic downturn as mass employment negated individual freedom.
   d) EXAMPLE. John Rawls argued that the state should take a more proactive role in reducing inequality within society and preventing social injustice.
   e) EXAMPLE. Betty Friedan argued that the state was the structure in which to guarantee societal and economic equality of opportunity for women.

Question 11

What is the difference between a Minimal and Enabling state?

Answer 11

MINIMAL STATE (Limited Government)

• A concept associated with classical liberalism and modern neo-liberalism.
• It suggests that in a free society, the state must be strongly controlled and should have a minimal breadth of functions.
• All branches of liberalism support entrenched constitutions and the separation of powers to reinforce limited government.
• If the state has too many functions it is likely to interfere with individual liberties.
• This concept is also associated with laissez-faire capitalism.

ENABLING STATE

• A state that does not necessarily provide for people directly but creates conditions where people can help themselves.
• Education provision for all is a key example.

Question 12

What is the principle of Rationalism?

Answer 12

PRINCIPLE OF RATIONALISM

1. Enlightenment Period
   a) The intellectual movement of the 18th century inspired scientists and philosophers with a positive view of human nature.
   - This particular concerns rationality, which was understood that humans were capable of reason and logic.
   - Faith in reason is linked to the idea of a progressive society.
   b) Unlike Conservatives, who believe in intellectual imperfection (that doubted that humans possessed such aptitudes), liberals believed that rationalism enabled individuals to both to define their own interests and moral choices.
   - Conservatives fear intellectual fallibility and cling to empiricism, customs and tradition to guide them.
2. Classical Liberalism
   a) EXAMPLE. John Locke’s ideas of constitutional and representative government (as opposed to monarchial government), proved influential to England’s Glorious Revolution of 1688, the UK Bill of Rights of 1689 and the American Constitution.
   b) EXAMPLE. Adam Smith’s ‘The Wealth of Nations’ is one of the most important expressions of economic theory within Liberalism.
   - Smith argued that capitalism functions best when the state takes a laissez-faire approach.
   - These ideas resonate today with the Trump administration’s flirtation with tariffs and protected markets being criticised because they contradict Adam Smith.
   c) EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill’s concept of negative liberty/freedom has been hugely influential in countries such as the UK and USA in determining the parameters of state intervention, the autonomy of the individual and the atomistic nature of the society.
3. Modern Liberalism
   a) EXAMPLE. T.H Green’s positive freedom, which urged state intervention to assist individual freedom, was a key rationalistic updating of classical liberalism that informed the ideas of a state-sponsored welfare system.
   b) EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill’s later ideas such as universal education anticipated Green’s positive freedom by arguing that the state must be an enabling state, facilitating developmental individualism.
   - However, modern liberals agree with Classical Liberals on the desirability of a free-market economy.
   c) Keynesian economics, although differing entirely from Laissez-faire economics, was equally rationalistic in its conception.
   d) EXAMPLE. John Rawls’ ideas of equality and social justice is a perfect example of abstract rational thought.

Question 13

What is the principle of Equality and Social Justice?

Answer 13

PRINCIPLE OF EQUALITY AND SOCIAL JUSTICE

1. Foundational Equality
   a) Both strands focused on foundational equality (the premise that all individuals are born with equal rights) and the rule of law so no individual is exempt from strictures.
   - Classical Liberalism ignores gender and racial inequality.
   - Modern Liberalism is associated with supporting full foundational equality.
   b) EXAMPLE. The US bill of Rights and the UK HRA legally protect what liberals consider to be the natural and inalienable rights of individuals.
2. Classical Liberalism
   a) Individuals with different talents should be rewarded differently.
   - A meritocratic society which is beneficial for society as it gives people an incentive to work and make the most of their abilities.
   b) EXAMPLE. William Gladstone PM introduced competitive examinations for entry to the civil service in the 1970s, bringing an end to the practice of making appointments on the basis of aristocratic connection.
3. Modern Liberalism
   a) Further focus on universal equality for both sexes.
   - EXAMPLE. Mary Wollstonecraft argued that women were denied equality in terms of property ownership and political representation. As they were discriminated in the workplace (being denied to many professions), they should have legal and economic parity and workplace equality of opportunity in the second half of the 20th century (Betty Friedan).
   b) Equally, they fully support civil rights for minority groups.
   - EXAMPLE. Martin Luther King and the civil rights movement demonstrated that the judicial interpretation of the US Constitution was failing to acknowledge all races equally. This saw the introduction of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act 1965.
   c) As foundational equality in itself is not enough to guarantee equality of opportunity, individuals mist have access to a full welfare state encompassing education, healthcare, the minimum wage and welfare provisions to guarantee true social justice.
   - EXAMPLE. T.H. Green’s ideas directly influenced the Beveridge Report, which was the intellectual basis for the postwar welfare state.
   d) EXAMPLE. John Rawls constructed a rational thought model in ‘A Theory of Justice (1971)’ to demonstrate the need for social justice.
   - Using an abstract ‘Veil of Ignorance’ Rawls posited that if individuals were asked to choose what type of society an individual would prefer and they were ignorant of their own circumstances, they would choose a society with as little inequality.
   - The concept of distributive justice was that inequality in modern capitalist-based society could be justified as long as those who do well economically is not at the expense of those least well off.
   - Although society was a meritocracy, it would produce unequal outcomes.
   - The state could produce an equality of opportunity via a welfare state.

Question 14

What is Meritocracy?

Answer 14

MERITOCRACY
- A principle that suggests that although inequality is natural in a free society, in a just society those with greater abilities, drive, creativity and work ethics deserve more rewards than those who do not have those qualities.

Question 15

What is the principle of Liberal Democracy?

Answer 15

PRINCIPLE OF LIBERAL DEMOCRACY

1. Supremecy of the People
   a) Classical liberals accept this as a broad concept of the social contract.
   - Yet this does not equate to full democratic representation.
   b) Modern liberals are insistent that supremacy of the people means that every adult should have the vote.
   - Yet the US Electoral College remains a filter against the ‘tyranny of the majority’.
   c) EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill feared the dominance of the working class if they were given the vote. In his work ‘Considerations on Representative Government’ he argues for plural voting for the educated and wealthy to prevent his own class being swept aside by the proletariat.
   - This was seen as favouring ‘Elite Democracy’ where the establishment exercises the real power.
   - John Locke and Mary Wollstonecraft would also agree.
2. The consent of the governed as the basis of legitimacy
   a) A concept that unites both forms of liberalism.
   - Elections provide frequent opportunities for the governed to register their consent.
   b) EXAMPLE. John Locke’s ‘Two Treatises of Government (1689)’ underpins this social contract.
3. The rule of law and peaceful methods of conflict resolution
   a) The rule of law forms part of the social contract between the governed and the governors.
4. The existence of a common good or public interest
   a) Classical liberalism struggles with such concepts as it views society as atomistic and therefore any collective will is difficult for classical liberals to support.
   b) The developmental individualism of John Stuart Mill and T.H. Green and the social justice of John Rawls base their version of society on more collective aims such as a welfare state.
5. The value of the individual as a rational, moral, active citizens
   a) Both strands of liberalism can accept this definition.
   b) EXAMPLE. Edmund Burke argued the importance of representative democracy, asserting that a voter elected a representative to make decisions based on his own judgement and not of the electorate.
6. Political equality and equal civil rights for all individuals
   a) Classical and modern liberalism are united on this.
   b) Betty Friedan championed the rights of women, whereas John Rawls’ theory of justice argued that not only were such rights a necessity it was also a rational choice for individuals to make when attempting to ascertain the principles of a society.

Question 16

What defines Classical Liberalism?

Answer 16

CLASSICAL LIBERALISM

1. Freedom and the Individual
   a) View freedom in a negative sense, which involves freedom from constraint and interference where possible.
   - EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill argued that an individual’s actions should be unencumbered unless they directly negatively affected others (harm principle). This led to Mill (like John Locke) to advocate a strong belief intolerance of the views of others (society of thought, discussion, religion and assembly).
   b) John Locke and John Stuart Mill advocated egoistical individualism, whereby individuals were self-reliant, self-interested and rational.
   - EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill argued that individuals were sovereign beings capable of free will and therefore should organise their own lives. Such individuals would not be freer in a negative freedom-based society, but minimal encroachments would facilitate their development as individuals (this influenced the US Constitution).
   - EXAMPLE. John Locke argued that men’s lives were their own and arbitrary government would enslave them. This was later expanded by Isaiah Berlin who argued that when modern liberals expand the role of the state for paternalistic functions, they do so at the expense of individual liberty.
   c) Paternalistic aspects of state intervention are oppressive.
   - Compulsory welfare states require taxation, and while individuals are free to opt-out of these services they cannot opt-out of paying the taxation that funds them.
   - EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill argued that the individual had the right to non-interference, even if their actions caused them individual harm.
   - EXAMPLE. Neo-liberal Robert Nozick argued that individuals have the right to consume drugs or end their life if they so wish to.
   - EXAMPLE. Spanner Case 1990 whereby 15 homosexual men were convicted of assault occasioning actual bodily harm even though all the injured parties were engaged in acts of consensual sadomasochism.
   d) Neo-liberalism as contemporary classical liberals believe that modern liberals betrayed core values such as egoistical individualism.
   - EXAMPLE. Robert Nozick and Ayn Rand were influenced by Immanuel Kant as a society should not be treated as a resource.
   - Neo-liberals want to reduce the size of the state and prioritise free markets and laissez-faire economics.
2. The Role of the State in the economy and society
   a) The optimal size of the government should be small and limited to maintaining law and order, property rights and securing the society from invasion.
   b) EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill’s early ideas encapsulate negative freedom through several thoughts.
   - Atrophy Argument, if the state interferes and restricts individual autonomy it will arrest individuals’ development.
   - Overload argument, adding further responsibilities burden an already overloaded state.
   - Initiative argument, overzealous government intervention will sap the commercial enterprise.
   - Corruption argument, an extension of powers to the state adds to the likelihood of abuses of power.
   c) Social Darwinism.
   - Concept of natural selection is applied to human society as individuals differ in their ability, it is unavoidable that some will successes and others will fail.
   - EXAMPLE. Herbert Spencer in ‘The Man Versus the State (1884)’ coined the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’.

Question 17

What defines Modern Liberalism?

Answer 17

MODERN LIBERALISM

1. Freedom and the Individual
   a) Both a continuation and contradiction of Classical Liberalism.
   - EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill is a transitional liberal as his later ideas advocated aspects of developmental individualism, such as universal education, which implies positive freedom as the state would have to facilitate such a development.
   - EXAMPLE. T.H Green and John Rawls are associated with the development of modern liberalism. Green asserted that freedom was not just to be left alone, but it should be viewed positively, with the creation of constructive assistance to encourage individual freedom.
   b) Modern Liberals broadly agree with Classicals on the concept of self-reliance but argue that the state must offer a ‘hand up’ if every individual is to achieve this goal.
   - The problem with negative freedom is the lack of assistance from the state only compounds social and economic disadvantage.
   - Positive freedom evens the playing field so all individuals can enjoy similar equality of opportunity and social justice.
   - EXAMPLE T.H. Green provided a template for the UK’s postwar welfare state and informed John Rawls ‘A Theory of Justice’ argument in which Rawls maintained that societal position and particular circumstances were huge determines of success.
   c) For Liberal Feminists such as Betty Friedan, both strands have achieved parity with men in society.
   - Citing John Stuart Mill’s harm principle, Friedan builds on the ideas of Mary Wollstonecraft to demonstrate that the freedoms of women were being harmed by sexual discrimination that was inconsistent with the social contractual agreement in the US Constitution.
2. The Role of the State in the economy and society
   a) The state should create conditions of freedom to allow individuals to reach their full potential.
   - Modern liberalism is a natural continuation and evolution of classical liberalism according to T.H. Green.
   b) EXAMPLE. John Stuart Mill’s later ideas encapsulate positive freedom through several thoughts.
   - Atrophy Counterargument, the state must supply public goods (things with a collective consumption necessity) in default of private provision (such as clean air and water, defence, official statistics).
   - Overload Counterargument, the extra responsibilities of the state are necessary to maintain freedom.
   - Initiative Counterargument, there must be regulations on working hours, individual consumers must be protected from unfair and unscrupulous marketing.
   - Corruption Counterargument, the exceptions to classical liberalism will not lead to abuses of power as they are altruistic in nature.
   c) EXAMPLE. T.H. Green argued that liberty and freedom defined by classical liberalism were worthless if individuals lacked the capacity to exercise those liberties. Modern liberals, therefore, advocate an enabling state which facilitates individuals to be truly free by reaching their potential.
   - EXAMPLE. These ideas were an influence on Asquith’s Liberal Government (The Old Pensions Act 1908, The Labour Exchanges Act 1909, The National Insurance Act 1911, The Trade Unions Act 1913).
   - Modern Liberalism inspired the Beveridge Report (1942).
   d) Economic management of John Maynard Keynes could prevent economic slumps and unemployment by stimulating the economy.
   - This is found in his book ‘The General (1936)’ for public expenditure to create jobs and stimulate the economy post the great depression.
   e) EXAMPLE. John Rawls’ ‘Theory of Justice (1971)’ gave 3 principles.
   - Individuals had to have the same set of absolute liberties.
   - There must be equal opportunities for all (supported by minimum wage, the increased welfare state).
   - Although some inequalities were inevitable, there must be a priority to help the disadvantaged (difference principle).

Question 18

What is the Mechanistic Theory of the State?

Answer 18

MECHANIST THEORY OF THE STATE

• The idea that the state is not organic but was created by individuals to serve them and act in their interests.
• Classical and modern liberals differ in what their definitions of what these best interests are.

Question 19

What was the Beveridge Report?

Answer 19

BEVERIDGE REPORT 1942

1. Sir William Beveridge, a leading civil servant and academic, put together a report which was the intellectual foundation for the postwar welfare state and proposed that the state tackle the 5 giants impeding the freedom of individuals.
   a) Want
   - Extreme poverty.
   b) Ignorance
   - Due to a lack of formal education.
   c) Disease
   - Exacerbated by the lack of free healthcare.
   d) Squalor
   - Poor living conditions.
   e) Idleness
   - Exacerbated by unemployment.
2. This was uptaken by the post-war Labour government which improved the welfare state.
   a) National Insurance, the National Health Service and improved social housing and education were responses to the challenges outlined.
   b) Promise to protect people from ‘cradle to the grave’.
   c) Saw a stark rise in an increase in taxation.

Question 20

To what extent is Modern Liberalism radically different from Classical Liberalism?

Answer 20

RADICAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STRANDS OF LIBERALISM

1. Yes
   a) The different strands of liberalism interpret freedom/liberty in dramatically different ways.
   - Classical liberalism argues for negative liberty.
   - Modern liberalism prefers positive liberty.
   b) Classical liberals argue for a minimal state.
   - Modern liberals argue for an enabling state.
   c) Classical liberals view taxation as an infringement of negative freedom.
   - Modern liberals view taxation as a key process for the implementation of positive freedom.
   d) Classical liberals favour laissez-faire economics,
   - Modern liberals are prepared to use Keynesian economics in certain economic situations (recessions).
   e) Classical liberals prefer limited forms of democracy so that elite groups retain power.
   - Modern liberalism embraces full representative democracy.
2. No
   a) Both strands of liberalism have a positive view of human nature and human potential.
   - Believing equality of opportunity and in equal civil rights.
   b) Both strands agree on the principle of government by consent and the concept of limited government (although this differs to an extent).
   c) Both strands of liberalism believe in rationalism, the harm principle and tolerance of minority groups.
   d) Individualism is a primary goal for both strands of liberalism, they merely differ in their methods of achieving it.
   e) Both strands of liberalism are enthusiastic supporters of capitalism and the free market and oppose nationalisation.

Question 21

Who are the 5 key Liberal thinkers?

Answer 21

KEY LIBERAL THINKERS

1. John Locke
2. Mary Wollstonecraft
3. John Stuart Mill
4. John Rawls
5. Betty Friedan

Question 22

What defines John Locke?

Answer 22

JOHN LOCKE (1632 - 1704)

1. Biography
   a) Seen as the Father of Liberalism.
   b) Key work in the ‘Two Treatises of Government (1689)’.
   - Here he strongly opposed the exercise of power unrestrained by law and sought for limited government based on consent from below.
   - He argued that both the rulers and people must be subject to the law.
2. Influence
   a) Supporter of the Glorious Revolution of 1688.
   - This entailed the replacement of the Catholic King James II with his Protestant son-in-law and daughter, William III and Mary II.
   - It gave the foundation to Britain’s constitutional monarchy and the UK Bill of Rights of 1689
   b) Locke was the leading philosopher of the Whig movement, the forerunner of the Liberal Party.
   - He based his philosophy on the doctrine of natural rights and natural laws.
   c) Locke’s concept of a social contract is that the government derives its legitimacy from the people and should govern in accordance with natural rights.
   - If the government breaks this contract then the people are entitled to resist the government and overthrow it.
3. Main Concepts
   a) The state was not created by God, nor is the monarchy legitimized by the ‘divine right of kings’.
   - Rather the state is created via a social contract between the rulers and the ruled: the principle of government by consent.
   - This was based on rational ideas (a constitutional government would replace an arbitrary government).
   b) Prior to the existence of the state, humans existed in a state of nature (Thomas Hobbes).
   - Locke argued that within the state of nature the human race was underpinned by ‘natural laws’, ‘natural liberties’ and ‘natural rights’.
   - The freedoms were extremely desirable and so the state must not encroach on them.
   c) The ‘state of law’ that Locke envisaged would see the state resolve disputes between individuals more equitably than can be achieved within a state of nature.
   d) The state should be limited in how it interferes in society and the economy.
   - This limited government would ensure that the state always represented the interest of the governed and always required their ongoing consent.
   - The state should be limited under the principle of constitutionalism with a clear separation of powers to prevent an abuse of power.
   - The role of government was the protection of man’s right to “life, liberty and estate”.
   - The state needed to mediate between competing individuals to enforce order, to protect property rights and prevent a breach of contracts and fraud.
   e) There should be tolerance between alternative religious and political views.
   f) Absolute monarchies were illegitimate and the state should be constructed by a social contract.
   - This idea was based on the rationalistic proposition that individuals would enter into a social contract to allow the state to act as a neutral umpire to resolve clashes.
   - If the state broke the contract by not protecting or enhancing natural rights then the people were within their rights to withdraw their consent and replace the government (accountability).
   - EXAMPLE. The American Revolution was a time when there was a broken contract between the ruled and the rulers.

Question 23

What defines Mary Wollstonecraft?

Answer 23

MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT (1759 - 1797)

1. Biography
   a) An early feminist writer known for ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)’.
   - Her work represents an extension of liberalism which was radical at the time.
   - She believed that women were no less rational than men, and therefore entitled to the same rights.
   - As ‘the mind has no gender’ women have instead been deprived of these opportunities which makes them appear unequal.
2. Influence
   a) Lived in a time when women lacked legal independence.
   - When they married, their husbands took control of almost every aspect of their lives, including property, and it was difficult for women to pursue a career outside of the home.
   - Women were ‘slaves… in a political and a civil sense.’
   - The key to achieving change was through education to make women gain self-respect and realise their potential.
   b) Valued marriage as an institution.
   - She married to the radical intellectual, William Godwin, dying soon after the birth of their daughter Mary Shelley.
   c) There were limits to ambition as a woman as they are more likely to opt for marriage and bringing up children
   - Yet Mary wanted women to be able to make this choice.
3. Main Concepts
   a) Had a positive view of human nature, viewing men and women as equally rational.
   - She argued that this truth was ignored by the contemporary state and society as women were dried formal equality under the law, which gave them considerably fewer rights than men within society.
   b) All citizens should enjoy equality under the law and be free from discrimination.
   - Mary campaigned for a change in the law to give women more rights in terms of employment and property ownership, as well as retaining legal freedoms when they were married (these were all areas of difficulties when she was writing).
   c) Support for formal equality and the social contract ideas of John Locke.
   - She viewed the divine rights of kings as ‘absurdity’ and was a vocal supporter of both the American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789, arguing for republicanism.

Question 24

What defines John Stuart Mill?

Answer 24

JOHN STUART MILL (1806 - 1873)

1. Biography
   a) Son of a utilitarian philosopher, James Mill.
   b) In ‘On Liberty (1859)’ he explores the harm principle with self-regarding (those that only affected the individual responsible for the action) and other-regarding actions (that affected others).
   c) Upheld tolerance of views.
   - EXAMPLE. He was jailed for trying to advise the poor on contraception, which was seen as a taboo subject in Victorian England.
   - EXAMPLE. His private life was unconventional. He lived for 21 years with the love of his life, Harriet Taylor, and her first husband, marrying her after the latter died.
   d) John Stuart Mill’s ‘The Subjection of Women (1869)’ argues that votes for women decades before enfranchisement was achieved.
2. Influence
   a) Initially inspired by his James Mill and the founder of the utilitarian movement, Jeremy Bentham
   - From this movement, he derived the idea that individuals are best qualified to judge their own interests.
   - He disagreed with their view that the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain was the sole motivation of human beings.
   - The betterment of human civilisation was no less important as a goal.
   b) In the later years of his life, he modified his limited view of government.
   - Believed that some state intervention was justified to prevent the poor from enduring injustice.
   - Believed in a ‘flat-tax’ rate/
3. Main Concepts
   a) Mill argued for restraint by the state, leaving individuals to be free to take whatever actions they judged fit, provided this did not harm others.
   - This was known as the harm principle.
   - Mill distinguished between ‘self-regarding’ actions (such as religious worship or freedom of speech), which do not impinge on the freedom of others and should be tolerated, and ‘other-regarding’ actions (involving violent or riotous behaviour), which clearly do ‘harm’ and infringe the freedom of others and should not be tolerated by a liberal state.
   - Contemporary neo-liberals use Mill’s idea to justify why individuals should be free to take drugs that are currently illegal, arguing that it is their choice and not the states.
   b) Mill argued that the state should be tolerant of diverse opinions.
   c) Mill believed that individual liberty was essential for the development of the individual in terms of creativity, culture and intellect.
   - If individuals were able to develop their individualism, the whole of society would benefit.
   d) He opposed popular democracy, where the interests of the few would be crushed by the interests of the majority.
   - As an alternative, he supported the idea of representative democracy with, as Locke had proposed, limited government.
   - The representatives would aggregate all the demands of individuals with society to create a broad consensus for decision making rather than strictly following the will of the majority.
   e) Although Mill argued that the government should interfere as little as possible in society and the economy, he later modified his views, arguing that the state must intervene to help individuals attain developmental individualism.
   - Talked of state intervention to assist the poor who were experiencing injustice in society and the economy.
   - This would be achieved via the state facilitating education. He saw these ideas, which influenced modern liberalism, as a natural continuation of classical liberalism and not a contradiction.
   f) Originally as a classical liberal, he favoured of representative democracy rather than a direct, popular democracy.
   - This is as Mill feared the dominance of the working class if they were given the vote.
   - In his work ‘Considerations on Representative Government,’ he argues for plural voting for the educated and wealthy to prevent his own class being swept aside by the proletariat.
   - This was seen as favouring ‘Elite Democracy’ where the establishment exercises the real power.

Question 25

What is the Harm Principle?

Answer 25

HARM PRINCIPLE
- The idea that the state is justified in interfering with individual freedom when it is to prevent citizens from doing harm to others.

Question 26

What defines John Rawls?

Answer 26

JOHN RAWLS (1921 - 2002)

1. Biography
   a) An American academic known for ‘A Theory of Justice (1971)’ in which he explores the veil of ignorance and gave 3 principles.
   - Individuals had to have the same set of absolute liberties.
   - There must be equal opportunities for all (supported by minimum wage, the increased welfare state).
   - Although some inequalities were inevitable, there must be a priority to help the disadvantaged (difference principle).
   b) In ‘Political Liberalism (1993)’, Rawls modified his original theory because he realised that, in a pluralist society, not everyone would agree with his model.
   - He, therefore, envisaged a range of liberal principles, with two main principles of equal rights and economic justice.
2. Influence
   a) Robert Nozick argued that Rawls’ ideas were a betrayal of liberalism and that Rawls’ demands for an interventionary state had more in common with socialism than liberalism.
   - Rawls would instead favour ‘property-owning democracy’ instead of communism or unregulated capitalism, in which ownership is widely distributed and the poorest members of society can be economically independent.
3. Main Concepts
   a) Believed that everyone would agree to an enabling state (and positive freedom) if they were in a position of ignorance (veil of ignorance).
   - This enabling state would provide a welfare state (including health and education).
   - These levels of intervention would involve more taxation and state spending to ensure equality of opportunity via developmental individualism.
   - In his book ‘A Theory of Justice (1971)’ Rawls attempts to reconcile individual freedom with the avoidance of excessive inequality in society.
   - Rawls theory implies that classical liberals (under a hypothetical veil of ignorance and thus oblivious to their personal circumstances) would choose an interventionary state to guarantee equality of opportunity, rather than a limited state that did not.
   - He argued that one’s societal position and particular circumstances (race, gender, social class, innate intelligence…) were huge factors in determining whether an individual thrived or underachieved within society.
   b) ‘Justice and fairness’.
   - He rejected utilitarianism because it did not take account of the range of desires and goals pursued by individual people, and some would find their interests ignored.
   - Everyone has an equal entitlement to certain basic rights and liberties yet it is important to make a society in which there is economic justice.
   c) To the traditional idea of foundational equality, Rawls added the need for social and economic equality.
   - He argued that a just society must provide equality of opportunity for everyone and this could only be achieved by the state taking a larger role within society.
   - This would be funded from progressive taxation.

Question 27

What defines Betty Friedan?

Answer 27

BETTY FRIEDAN

1. Biography
   a) American liberal feminist who wrote ‘The Feminine Mystique (1963)’.
   b) She helped to found the National Organisation for Women (NOW).
   - Its aim was to bring women fully into the mainstream of society alongside men and to secure the enforcement of anti-discrimination laws by the federal government.
   c) Also wrote ‘The Second Stage (1983)’
2. Influence
   a) Was influenced by classical liberalism in her belief that if the state allowed equality of opportunity then women’s individual efforts could achieve the successful combination of marriage, motherhood and career.
   b) Also influenced by modern liberalism.
   - Like Rawls, she felt that if utilised properly an enabling state could assist women in being free.
   - The state was the vehicle with which to counter dominant patriarchal values that discriminate against women and to ensure foundational equality and equality of opportunity in both society and the economy.
   - This would include state benefits for single, divorced or widowed mothers.
3. Main Concepts
   a) Strongly argued for individual freedom.
   - She believed that individuals should be free to be able to achieve their potential.
   - Like Mary Wollstonecraft, she argued that gender was a serious hindrance to women as they were constantly discriminated against in society.
   - The state was the structure in which to guarantee societal and economic equality of opportunity for women.
   b) She believed that women were the principal victims of a lack of opportunity and restricted opportunities within society because of patriarchal attitudes.
   - Women were conditioned to become wives and homemakers instead of biology.
   - Women confined to a domestic role led to a lack of fulfilment and to deep happiness.

Question 28

To what extent do Liberals and key thinkers agree over the concept of Human Nature?

Answer 28

HUMAN NATURE

1. Classical Liberalism
   a) Individuals are rational or capable of rationality and prefer to pursue their enlightened self-interest.
   b) People should be restricted only where there is a risk of them threatening the freedom of others.
   c) Agree that there should be a tolerance of different values, customs and beliefs.
2. Modern Liberalism
   a) Individuals crave freedom but also understand that they have obligations to help others less fortunate.
   - This makes them more conscious of social justice.
   b) People should embrace their talents through equality of opportunity.
3. Neo-Liberalism
   a) EXAMPLE. Robert Nozick argued that modern liberalism betrayed classical liberal notions of Immanuel Kant that the individual should not be treated as a thing or a resource.

KEY THINKERS OF HUMAN NATURE

1. John Locke
   - Humans are guided by self-interests but are concerned for others.
2. Mary Wollstonecraft
   - Both men and women are capable of rational thought.
3. John Stuart Mill
   - Human nature is rational but not fixed and is capable of progressing to higher levels.
4. John Rawls
   - Humans can be selfish and value individual freedom.
   - However, they are sympathetic to those less fortunate than them
5. Betty Friedan
   - Culture has evolved so that human nature is patriarchal and discriminatory towards women.

Question 29

To what extent do Liberals and key thinkers agree over the concept of The State?

Answer 29

THE STATE

1. Classical Liberalism
   a) The state should be limited and controlled by a government based on representative democracy.
   - According to the mechanistic theory, people created the state to serve them and act in their interests.
   b) A social contract should be established by people sacrificing freedoms in return for security.
   - This should, however, be a limited government with checks and balances to prevent abuses and decentralise power.
2. Modern Liberalism
   a) State intervention can be justified on the grounds of social justice, equality and social welfare, and is, therefore, an enabling state.
   b) The power of the state and government should be controlled by constitutional rules and robust democracy.
3. Neo-Liberalism
   a) An expanded, enabling state infringes individual liberty and erodes rugged and egoistical individualism.
   - Rather than being self-dependent, individuals have become dependent on a state that supports them from ‘cradle to grave’.
   - EXAMPLE. Friedrich von Hayek argued that state paternalism created a dependency culture which arrested individual development and initiative.
   b) EXAMPLE. Robert Nozick argued that the taxation the state demanded infringes citizens freedom as ‘theft’.
   - Argued that John Rawls’ principle of redistribution and social justice were essentially socialism and betraying egoistical individualism.

KEY THINKERS ON THE STATE

1. John Locke
   - The state should only govern by consent.
2. Mary Wollstonecraft
   - Monarchial states should be replaced by Republican states that entrench women’s rights.
3. John Stuart Mill
   - The state should be a representative democracy and be mindful of minority rights.
4. John Rawls
   - An enabling state will assist developmental individualism via public spending on services.
5. Betty Friedan
   - The state should intervene in the public sphere to prevent discrimination against women.

Question 30

To what extent do Liberals and key thinkers agree over the concept of Society?

Answer 30

SOCIETY

1. Classical Liberalism
   a) Society is naturally competitive, being made up of free individuals pursuing their own interests.
   - This ignores collective cooperation towards a ‘common good’.
   b) Advocate the concept of meritocracy, whereby individuals success through their own ability and hard work.
   - Entails a belief in the importance of foundational equality, whereby the individuals are entitled to the same legal and political rights.
2. Modern Liberalism
   a) Society should embrace a degree of social welfare and social justice.
   b) Individualism should be tempered with social action and recognition of a common good.
3. Neo-Liberalism
   a) EXAMPLE. Friedrich von Hayek argued that the exponential cost and demand for welfare provision would eventually bankrupt the state and society.
   - The UK is currently running a deficit as it spends more than it receives in taxation.

KEY THINKERS ON SOCIETY

1. John Locke
   - Natural laws and natural rights of society predate the state.
2. Mary Wollstonecraft
   - Society ‘infantilised’ women and this inhibited female individualism.
3. John Stuart Mill
   - Individuality should coexist with tolerance and self-improvement.
4. John Rawls
   - Rationalistic ‘Veil of Ignorance’ argued that individuals would choose a society that offered opportunities for the less fortunate to improve their condition.
5. Betty Friedan
   - Society is patriarchal and needs reforming.

Question 31

To what extent do Liberals and key thinkers agree over the concept of The Economy?

Answer 31

THE ECONOMY

1. Classical Liberalism
   a) The economy should be based on free markets, free trade and a lack of state intervention.
2. Modern Liberalism
   a) The injustices thrown up by capitalism should be reduced by the state through welfare, equality of opportunity and a limited redistribution of income.
   - The state should promote sustainable growth and prevent large scale unemployment and poverty.
3. Neo-Liberalism
   a) EXAMPLE. Milton Friedman was critical of the supposed efficacy of Keynesian economics.
   - The state was ill-planned to plan or intervene in the economy.
   b) See the role of government as being limited to controlling inflation via monetarism (restraining the supply of money).

KEY THINKERS ON THE ECONOMY

1. John Locke
   - Private property is a natural right and the state’s role is merely to arbitrate between individuals competing for trade and resources.
2. Mary Wollstonecraft
   - Liberated women would thrive and enhance the free-market economy.
3. John Stuart Mill
   - Laissez-faire capitalism promotes both individual initiative and progress.
4. John Rawls
   - The state’s obligation to disadvantaged citizens would temper free-market capitalism.
5. Betty Friedan
   - Liberated women would thrive and enhance the free-market economy.
   - Legislation must prevent women from being discriminated against in the workplace.