1.3: Electoral systems

Question 1

What is the purpose of elections?

Answer 1

PURPOSE OF ELECTIONS

1. Holding the current elected representative to account.
   a) The government is renewed at most every 5 years, whereby it has to face the electorate at a general election to renew its mandate to govern.
   b) Voters have the right to reject an unpopular government that have perceived to failed upon its promises in office.
   c) Individual MP’s can be held to account for their personal performance.
   - EXAMPLE. Following the 2009 expenses scandal, a number of MP’s stood down rather than face the voters at the election in 2010.
   d) Since 2015, the Recall of MP’s Act has strengthened the power of voters to remove MP’s who have behaved poorly
   - If an MP is sentenced to a prison sentence or, suspended from the Commons for more than 21 days, a by-election is triggered if at least 10% of constituents sign a recall petition.
2. Choosing an elected representative and government.
   a) The Burkean Theory of representation.
   - MPs are NOT ‘delegates’ (people sent to speak and act with a predetermined agenda to replicate the views and wishes of others).
   - They provide a link between the community and those who take decisions on their behalf as Trustees (autonomy to speak and vote as they see fit in the interests of their constituency, independent in response to changing circumstances).
   - The election grants those individuals a mandate to act on behalf of those who voted.
   b) Yet representative function is complex in Westminster with pressure from party leadership and loyalty to support an agreed line (the promise of Government posts may influence ambitious MPs).
   c) The electorate is choosing a government and granting it legitimacy.
   - Normally FPTP is efficient in establishing a majority government, but in more recent events, there have been exceptions such as the 2010 coalition and 2017 confidence and supply agreement.
3. Legitimising political power.
   a) A government formed as a product of a free and fair election is a ‘legitimate’ government.
   - This means that it has the right to exercise power (ability to carry out government action) and authority (rightful exercising of power) over an area and the people within it.
   b) Essential to gaining legitimacy is the participation of voters.
   - If the turnout is too low, the election will not effectively represent the views of the public, thereby undermining the legitimacy of the government elected.
   c) There must be competing parties or individuals to choose between as competition is essential to legitimacy.
   - EXAMPLE. Although in 2010, neither party won the election outright, the two parties together commanded an overall vote of 59% (a clear majority).
4. Development of political policy.
   a) As part of an election, parties and candidates publish a manifesto outlining policies that will be implemented if elected into office.
   - Public opinion through the election can shape these policies, and ultimately the winner of an election is usually chosen on these policies.
   b) Election defeats do send a message to parties not to persist with unpopular policies.
   - EXAMPLE. Labours catastrophic defeat in 1983 and 1987 led to the party leadership gradually dropping unpopular policies and moving more central
   - EXAMPLE. In 2017, Theresa May advanced a policy which would require people to sell their homes to pay for social care in old aged. This was dubbed the ‘dementia tax’ by those who opposed it. It received so much opposition that the Conservative party abandoned it during the election campaign.
5. Selection of a political elite.
   a) In the UK, parties decide who runs in an election under their party name.
   - They choose who they think most likely is to be successful.
   b) Once all elected representatives are chosen, some of these will be included in the formation of a government.
   - This political elite is responsible for the smooth running of a country.
6. Participation
   a) The most obvious way in which ordinary people can take part in Politics.
   b) Party manifestos provide information on what voters can make their judgements on although many manifestos can be confusing:
   - EXAMPLE. In 2001, the Labour manifesto stated “We will not introduce ‘Top-Up” fees (for University Tuition) and legislation to prevent them” yet they decided to increase fees from their previous level of £1,000 to £3,000 per annum.

Question 2

What are the different categories and types of the electoral system and where are they used?

Answer 2

ELECTORAL SYSTEM

1. Majoritarian
   a) A majority is 50%+1 to win.
   - This may refer to the number of votes needed to win a seat.
   - Alternatively, it may refer to the number of seats needed to form a government.
   - Likely to produce a 2 party system.
   b) Supplementary vote (SV)
   - Used for the election of London Mayor every 4 years.
   - Used for the election of Police and Crime Commissioners every 4 years.
2. Plurality
   a) A plurality of votes is having more votes than anyone else, thus winning but not having an overall majority.
   - In this system, no majority is required to win a seat.
   - Likely to produce a 2 party system.
   b) First-past-the-post (FPTP)
   - Used in the UK Parliament every 5 years.
   - Used in local elections every 4 years.
3. Proportional
   a) Allocates seats in a manner which roughly reflects the percentage of votes gained by a party.
   - No purely proportional systems are used in the UK.
   - Likely to produce a multiparty system.
   b) Additional member system (AMS).
   - Used to elect the London Assembly every 4 years.
   - Used to elect the Scottish Parliament every 4 years.
   - Used to elect the Welsh Parliament every 4 years.
   c) Single transferable vote (STV).
   - Used to elect the Northern Irish Assembly every 4 years.
   - European Parliament elections (or party-list system) every 5 years.

Question 3

How does FPTP work?

Answer 3

FIRST-PAST-THE-POST

1. Selection
   a) The UK is divided into 650 geographical constituencies.
   - Each constituency contains approximately 70,000 people.
   b) Each constituency is represented by one sear, held by a single MP, in the House of Commons.
   - These are therefore known as single-member constituencies.
   - Each party will select a candidate to run for election within a constituency.
2. Constituency
   a) The voters of each constituency cast a single ballot, choosing between the candidates put forward.
   - The candidate with the most votes wins that constituency seat and becomes its elected representative.
   - This is a simple plurality system, as in the person with the largest number of votes in a constituency (or seat) is elected.
   b) Until 1948, some constituencies returned more than one member (Lancaster towns were dual-member constituencies).
3. At a national level
   a) The winning candidate in each constituency is sent to Parliament to be an MP.
   b) The party with the largest number of seats (not necessarily the popular vote) has the right to form a government.
   - If no party has a majority, then 2 or more parties may choose to form a coalition and work together or choose to form a minority government.
4. Where is it used?
   a) Used in the UK Parliament every 5 years.
   b) Used in local elections every 4 years.

Question 4

What are the effects of using FPTP?

Answer 4

EFFECTS OF FIRST-PAST-THE-POST

1. A two-party system
   a) Due to it being a plurality system based within constituencies, it generally leads to a 2 party system.
   b) Those in second and third place gain nothing as it is a ‘winner-takes-all’ system.
   - EXAMPLE. In 2015, Alasdair McDonnell of the SDLP won the seat of Belfast South on 24.5%.
   - EXAMPLE. In2017, North East Fife was won by the SNP by just 2 votes after 3 recounts.
   c) This system favours parties which command a reasonable concentration of support across a large geographical area.
   - Bigger parties have expenses and broad ideologies which support their success.
2. Winner’s bonus
   a) The outcome of FPTP tends to over-reward the winning party in an election.
   - EXAMPLE. In 1997, Labour gained 43% of the national vote, but 63% of the seats.
   - EXAMPLE. In 2015, the Conservatives gained 37% of the vote, but 51% of the seats.
   b) It can distort voters’ wishes.
   - EXAMPLE. In 1951, Winston Churchill’s Conservative party won 321 seats with 48.0% of the votes, whereas Clement Attlee won 295 seats with 48.8% of the vote.
   - EXAMPLE. In February 1974, Harold Wilson’s labour party won 301 seats with 37.2% against Edward Heath’s Conservative party winning 297 with 37.9% of the vote.
3. Strong single-party government
   a) Usually FPTP will return a single party with a majority of seats in the Commons.
   - EXAMPLE. As seen with Boris Johnson’s stinking majority of 80 seats in 2019.
   - EXAMPLE. David Cameron confirmed a majority of 12 seats in 2015.
   b) Some cases may require a coalition government to supply government.
   - EXAMPLE. In 2010, Conservatives = 306, Labour = 258, Lib Dems = 57. A coalition agreement was signed with compromises in their manifesto.
   c) A confidence and supply agreement (where one party agrees to support another in votes in supply/money and votes of no confidence.
   - EXAMPLE. This was seen in 2017 with the DUP. Conservatives = 318, Labour = 262, DUP = 10.
4. Safe seats and swing seats
   a) As a result of the ‘winner-takes-all’ nature of FPTP, a number of constituencies have become ‘safe seats’.
   - This means that a particular party can almost guarantee victory in a particular seat.
   - This is as a result of a concentration of voters with loyalty to one specific party being grouped together in one constituency.
   b) Marginal/swing seats are where voter loyalty within a constituency is more evenly split between parties, with the result that the likely winner of the seat is more difficult to determine.
   - EXAMPLE. Due to the extraordinary political circumstances of the 2010s, many supposed ‘safe-seats’ swung to the Conservatives in the 2019 election including the ‘red-wall’ seats of Bolsover, Blyth Valley, Bishop Auckland and Sedgefield.

Question 5

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using FPTP?

Answer 5

FIRST-PAST-THE-POST
1. Advantages
a) Speed and simplicity
- A simple system for the voters rather than a mathematical formula.
- This should, in theory, increase turnout and reduce spoiled ballots.
- The ease and familiarity helps to explain its support (Voters were against AV at almost 68% in May 2011).
- The result is quickly known the morning after polling day, so the new government is quickly formed with a swift transfer of power.
- EXAMPLE. The 2010 Belgium election (Proportional system - far less decisive) took 18 months to form a government
b) Strong and Stable Government
- The system generally creates a 2 party system, with a clear majority and thus a mandate to carry out its policy.
- The government can be removed at the next general election if the voter disprove.
- By boosting the significance of smaller parties, this system gives them undue influence on deciding governance.
- EXAMPLE. In Germany, between 1969 and 1998, the Free Democrats never gained more than 10% of the popular vote but were able to balance the power between the two largest parties. This sustained the Social Democrats in office until 1982, when they switched to the Christian Democrats (Conservatives).
c) A strong link between MPs and their constituencies.
- It gives a clear link between each area and a representative, providing local representation and clear accountability to constituents.
- This humanises parliament as they have a clear constituency office and hold surgeries.
- EXAMPLE. Labour MP Stephen Timms (East Ham) has held the record for the greatest number of surgeries in 2011, despite being stabbed by an Islamic Extremist at surgery the previous year - insisting that it was important for him to continue to be accessible.
d) Exclusion of extremist/fringe parties with ensures centralist policies.
- With third parties struggling to gain success under FPTP
it naturally excludes extremists/minority parties with views that may feed on racism, xenophobia…
- EXAMPLE. The BNP gained 1.9% of the votes in 2010 and National Front gained 0.6% in 1979, which is proportional terms would have translated into 12 and 3 seats respectively in our 650 system.

2. Disadvantages
   a) MPs can be elected on less than 50% of the vote.
   - With plurality voting, more than half of MPs do not command majority support within their constituency, as they do not need an overall majority.
   - Undermines the legitimacy of a candidate and means that more people cumulatively voted against a candidate.
   - EXAMPLE. In Belfast South in 2015, with only 24.5% of the vote and voter turnout at 60%, Alasdair McDonnell (SDLP - Social Democratic and Labour Party) only polled 14.7% of the electorate. Jonathan Bell (DUP), the runner up was on 22.2% of the vote.
   b) Limited Voter Choice.
   - Each party puts forward a singular candidate, so no choice of the individual representing different shades of opinion within their party.
   - The presence of safe seats means that minority voters have no hope of seeing their favourite candidate win.
   - This can depress voter turnout, as many feel like their attempts are futile.
   - EXAMPLE. In 2015, the Electoral Reform Society estimated that 56% (364 seats) were safe seats.
   - EXAMPLE. Theresa May’s Maidenhead constituency in Berkshire is held with a majority of 29,059 in 2015, and has been Conservative since 1885.
   - People may resort to tactical voting for the ‘least bad’ (not voting for their favourite, but for the candidate most likely to prevent the party they dislike from winning) - a jeopardization of democracy?
   - Vote swaps have been set up, where people would swap their vote with someone in an area, where it would make a difference (not illegal unless inducement or pressure is applied).
   - EXAMPLE. Thanet South, Kent has been a marginal seat since its creation in 1983 reflecting the party in power, even retaining Conservative when challenged by Nigel Farage in 2017 (a majority of 2,812)
   c) Votes of unequal value.
   - Small constituencies and variation in turnout causes votes to be of unequal value.
   - EXAMPLE. Wirral West 55,377 electorate compared to the Isle of Wight’s 110,000.
   - EXAMPLE. Twickenham’s 79.5% turnout compared to Glasgow North East’s 53% in 2010.
   - EXAMPLE. It only took 9,407 votes to elect the MP for Orkney and Shetland in 2015, but 28,591 for the Isle of Wight MP.
   - EXAMPLE. The Electoral Reform Society calculated that 74.4% of votes cast in the 2015 election were wasted, compared to 71.1% in 2010, as votes for a losing candidate or excess for the winning candidate is seen as ‘wasted’.
   - EXAMPLE. The New Economics Foundation set up the Voter Power Index that showed the average UK vote is with 0.25 votes - falling to 0.002 in Knowsley and 5.17 in Arfon.
   - ELECTORAL DESERTS - Areas of the country where one country cannot win seats, South-East England is an electoral desert for Labour, but ‘Heartland’ for Conservatives.
   d) The Winner’s Bonus and Governments can be formed with less than 50% of the vote.
   - The winning party under FPTP enjoys a share of the seats greater than that of its share of the vote it receives.
   - This occurs if there is a large number of marginal seats between the two main parties, tends to determine which way elections swing. So they focus heavily on these seats, funding/campaigning/high-profile figures endorsing.
   - EXAMPLE. Thatcher won majorities in 1983 and 1987 of 144 and 102 respectively, on 42% of the vote.
   - EXAMPLE. In 2015, Cameron won 50.9% of the seats with 36.9% of the vote.
   - EXAMPLE. Tony Blair’s New Labour was re-elected on 35.2% of the popular vote in 2005.
   - This can weaken the mandate enjoyed by the ruling party.
   e) Lack of proportionality.
   - FPTP does not translate the number of votes into seats with accuracy.
   - The system favours parties whose support is concentrated, rather than those who support is spread across a large geological area.
   - EXAMPLE. In 2015, UKIP won almost 3.9 million votes (12.6% of the vote) but was only awarded 1 seat (0.2% of the seats in the commons).
   - EXAMPLE. In 2015, the SNP won 56 out of 59 seats on 4.7% of the vote but only because it campaigned in one part of the UK.
   - FPTP does not acknowledge the rise of smaller parties, between 1945-70 it was 10 MPs, in 2015 it was 87 MPs.

Question 6

How does AMS work?

Answer 6

ADDITIONAL MEMBER SYSTEM

1. Process.
   a) Voters have two votes.
   - One is for a constituency representative who is elected via FPTP on a ‘winner-takes-all’ basis.
   - Second is a party list and uses multi-member regional constituencies (proportional representation). They use the d’Hondt formula to calculate the number of votes needed for a seat.
   b) There are fewer list members than constituency representatives, and so they are ‘top-up’ or ‘additional’ members.
2. Where is it used?
   a) The devolved bodies (these bodies have 4-year fixed terms):
   b) The Scottish Parliament
   - 73 out of the 129 members are elected in single-member constituencies.
   - 56 seats are being filled by list members.
   - EXAMPLE. The Conservatives normally perform rather poorly in Scotland on a constituency basis, but AMS is in the favour. In 2016, they received 22% of the constituency votes (7 seats) and 23% of the regional vote (24 seats).
   - EXAMPLE. SNP in 2016 received 46.5% of the constituency votes (59 seats) and 41.7% of the regional vote (4 seats).
   c) The Welsh Assembly.
   - 40 out of the 60 members represent single-member constituencies.
   - 20 are list members.
   d) Greater London Assembly (GLA).
   - 14 out of the 25 members are elected in single-member constituencies.
   - 11 are top-up members.

Question 7

What are the effects of using AMS?

Answer 7

EFFECTS OF ADDITIONAL MEMBER SYSTEM

1. Likely to result in a multiparty system as smaller parties have greater success.
   a) This makes it difficult for one party to gain an outright majority.
   - Although the SNP achieved this in 2011.
   b) Most assemblies have coalitions.
2. Safe seats and swing seats are still a feature of AMS.
   a) Although this is less evident in the regional vote due to the element of proportionality.

Question 8

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using AMS?

Answer 8

ADDITIONAL MEMBER SYSTEM

1. Advantages
   a) Introduces a Proportional Element.
   - Acts as a corrective to the FPTP part of the system.
   - This reduces the wasted votes and ensures that more parties have the chance of being represented.
   - EXAMPLE. In Scotland, the Conservative Party won no seats in the 1997 Westminster election under FPTP, but the list enabled it to win a total of 18 seats in the first Scottish Parliament in 1999.
   b) Electors have split-ticket voting.
   - Electors have a wider choice rather than just under FPTP.
   - They can vote for a ‘split ticket’ if they wish, using their constituency vote to choose a representative from one party, and their top-up vote to support another party.
   - This encourages more parties to run, especially in the regional ballot.
   c) It maintains a strong link between the member and the constituency (through FPTP) and greater representation.
   - Which many people use as a criticism of STV.
   d) Produces a government with broad popularity.
   - In order to form a single-party government, a party must have broad popularity across the whole country and not just in concentrated pockets.
   - If coalitions are formed, a great number of parties can have an input on policy.
   - Legitimises government.
2. Disadvantages
   a) It creates two different class of members.
   - Some with constituency responsibilities and some without.
   - Some argue that this creates an ‘easier job’ for some, however, there is little evidence that the second category is seen as having less legitimacy.
   - It can blur accountability.
   b) Closed List system is used with party control.
   - Means that the party leadership ranks candidates in order on the list.
   - This power can be used to limit the chance of dissident members of the party getting elected.
   - So the public does not get to choose who to elect = less choice.
   c) Smaller parties achieve less representation than under a fully-proportional system.
   - This is seen in Wales, where a small number of top-up seats has advantaged Labour, due to the lack of proportionality votes (See May 2016 Welsh Assembly election results).
   - The SNP has been the dominant party in Scotland since 2007, running a majority government in 2011-16.
   d) More complicated.
   - Although the process is simple, voters may feel as if their vote is mathematically manipulated.
   e) The first round.
   - The constituency vote is conducted using FPTP, therefore carries with it the same disadvantages.

Question 9

How does STV work?

Answer 9

SINGLE TRANSFERABLE VOTE

1. Process.
   a) A country is divided unto multi-member constituencies, each with a number of candidates from the same/different parties.
   - Parties field the maximum number of candidates they think can get elected.
   b) Voters rank their preferences in numerical order (ordinal voting).
   c) The total number of ballots cast in each region is counted and a ‘droop quota’ is calculated (the number of votes needed to win a seat.
   d) Those candidates with excess votes above the quota have their votes transferred.
   - Those candidates with the least votes are eliminated and their votes are transferred.
   e) This process continues until all available seats are filled.
2. Where is it used?
   a) The Northern Ireland Assembly.
   - There are 18 constituencies, each returning 5 members = 90 members in total.
   b) European Parliament Elections in Northern Ireland.
   - Similar to the Party-list system used in European elections.
3. STV is the preferred system of the Electoral Reform Society.
   a) Votes are of more equal value and there is less incentive for the voter to vote tactically.
   b) It is also the most successful in achieving voter satisfaction.

Question 10

What are the effects of using STV?

Answer 10

EFFECTS OF SINGLE TRANSFERABLE VOTE

1. Likely to produce a multiparty system and a coalition government.
   a) Being highly proportional, it is unlikely that it will lead to anyone party gaining an outright majority.
   - EXAMPLE. Coalitions are common in the Republic of Ireland as they use STV. In 2020, Fianna Fáil claimed 38 seats, Mary Lou McDonald with Sinn Fein won 37 seats, Leo Varadkar with Fine Gael won 35 seats.
2. The likelihood of safe seats is reduced and the value of each vote is more uniform.

Question 11

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using STV?

Answer 11

SINGLE TRANSFERABLE VOTE

1. Advantages
   a) Greater proportional and representation result.
   - There is a close link between votes and seats which allows for near-complete proportionality as it translates votes into seats fairly.
   - This removes tactical voting.
   - Candidates have to work harder for votes due to the absence of safe seats, addressing concerns across the whole constituency, whilst FPTP encourages parties to focus on just key marginal seats at the expense of others.
   b) Voter choice.
   - It is possible to choose between candidates standing for the same party (possibly different wings of the same party) as well as between candidates from different parties.
   - This helps smaller parties that are underrepresented.
   c) Power-sharing government.
   - In Northern Ireland, it has created a power-sharing government that enables representatives of the two rival communities.
   - The unionists and nationalists work together, ending 30 years of violent disturbance in Northern Ireland and allowing compromise.
2. Disadvantages
   a) The link between the elected representative member and the voters may be weak.
   - This is especially true in underpopulated multi-member constituencies which are too large for their representatives to know well.
   - This may lead to Donkey Voting as voters may list candidates in rank order as stated on the ballot paper.
   b) It is more complicated.
   - Like AMS, although the process of voting is simple, the process of calculated representatives is not.
   - This may reduce turnout.
   c) It is unlikely to produce a single-party government.
   - Power-sharing governments may bring rival groups together which are still prone to conflict.
   - EXAMPLE. The Northern Ireland Executive was suspended several times in its early years, including five years in 2002-07 as a result of a breakdown of trust.
   - EXAMPLE. Cooperation between the parties broke down again early in 2017 to 2020, triggering further elections and civil servants taking the operational role.
   d) STV did not help the more centrist parties in the long term.
   - The dominant parties are now the DUP (Unionists) and Sinn Fein (Republicanist).
   - Since 2007, they have replaced the more moderate Ulster Unionists Party and the Social and Democratic Labour Party.

Question 12

How does SV work?

Answer 12

SUPPLEMENTARY VOTE

1. A form of Alternative Voting, AV).
   a) A majoritarian electoral system that gives the voter two choices.
   b) If one candidate obtains more than 50% on the first vote, then they are immediately elected.
   - However, if no candidate attains this level, all but the top two candidates remain.
   - The supplementary choices are redistributed to produce a single winner.
2. Where is it used?
   a) London Mayor and other elected mayors.
   b) Police and Crime Commissions in England and Wales.

Question 13

What are the effects of using SV?

Answer 13

EFFECTS OF SUPPLEMENTARY VOTE

1. It is likely to result in a 2 party system and a single-party government.
   a) The Mayor of London voting system intentionally ignores smaller parties.
   b) On a national level, this would produce two-party dominance.

Question 14

What are the advantages and disadvantages of using SV?

Answer 14

SUPPLEMENTARY VOTE

1. Advantages
   a) Ensures broad support for the winner.
   - EXAMPLE. Sadiq Khan was elected Mayor of London in May 2016 with the largest personal mandate of any elected politician in British History.
   - EXAMPLE. He won on the second round of votes with 56.8% after transfer votes were taken into account. Zac Goldsmith only sat on 43.2% after 2nd preference votes were considered.
   - This increases legitimacy.
   b) It is simple and straightforward to use.
   - Unlike proportional system, SV is easy to understand in both how votes are cast and counted afterwards.
   c) It has allowed some independent candidates to win.
   - EXAMPLE. 12 out of the 40 police and crime commissioners were independents in the 2012 contest.
   - Ken Livingstone ran for independent from 2000-2004 and successfully won (although he was the leader of the Greater London Council from 1981 until the council was abolished in 1986).
   d) Voter choice.
   - Voters have more choice than in FPTP, knowing that they can vote for different parties in order of preference.
   - This ensures that their vote isn’t wasted = voter satisfaction.
2. Disadvantages
   a) Two-party dominance.
   - The elimination of all but 2 candidates in one go means that 3rd parties are unlikely to do well and the result is not proportional.
   - This may encourage tactical voting for the second choice rather than providing a better choice for the voters.
   b) A false majority.
   - A candidate needs only to gain a majority of the ‘valid vote’, meaning that votes that count.
   - In the second round, the vote of anyone with no second preference or whose second preference has been eliminated is not counted, meaning the winning candidate might not have a true majority.
   c) Wasted votes.
   - As with FPTP, there is a large number of wasted votes which have little to no impact on the outcome of the election.
   d) Voters need to be able to identify the likely two candidates.
   - This is in order for them to have influence over the outcome, and this is not always clear (with the exception of London).

Question 15

What regulates constituency boundaries?

Answer 15

INDEPENDENT BOUNDARY COMMISSION

1. There are 4 separate Boundary Commissions for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.
   a) Each commission recommends periodic changes to constituency boundaries based on movements of population.
2. From 2016 to 2018, the Boundary Commission carried out a review of constituency boundaries after Parliament decided to reduce the number of MPs from 650 to 600.
   a) Decided that the electorate must be within 5% of the average constituency in the UK.
   - This was +/-5% of 74,769.
   - Two constituencies each must be allocated to the Isle of Wight and Scottish Islands regardless of population
   b) Each constituency must not be allowed to be more than 13,000 square KM.
   c) This angered Labour as the changes would have meant that the Conservatives would practically have a de facto majority of seats.
   d) In 2005, Scottish Constituencies were reduced from 72 to 59 to bring it in line with the rest of the UK.

Question 16

What is the difference between a Coalition and a Confidence and Supply agreement?

Answer 16

COALITION

• A formal agreement between 2 or more parties, with both forming the government.
• This results in the creation of joint party policies and goals for the duration of the coalition and an expectation of support for these policies from the elected representatives of both parties.
• The government, including the cabinet, will be formed from members of all parties in the coalition.

CONFIDENCE AND SUPPLY

• A more informal agreement between the governing party and one other.
• Results in an agreement to support the government on issues of ‘confidence’ and ‘supply’ in return for government support on specific issues important to the other party. Beyond this, there is no expectation of support.
• The government, including the cabinet, will be formed of members from 1 party.

Question 17

To what extent should FPTP be replaced for UK General Elections?

Answer 17

FPTP SHOULD BE REPLACED IN UK GEs

1. Yes
   a) Recent elections demonstrate that FPTP is no longer even fulfilling the traditional strengths that it promised, such as a strong, single-party government.
   b) FPTP produces a poor result regardless of your view. Its lack of proportionality is increasingly evident and this does not fit with the principles of representative democracy, and it does not deliver either MPs or a government with a majority of the votes cast.
   c) The government that it does deliver can be argued to lack legitimacy and yet possess huge power; This is what Lord Hailsham referred to as an ‘elective dictatorship’. Even governments with small majorities have been able to push through policy with little regard for the opposition view.
   d) The inequality in voter values across the UK does not fit with the principle of ‘one person, one vote’ and is not going to be remedied simply by moving constituency boundaries in 2020.
   - EXAMPLE. This has been a relenting issue since the 1998 Jenkins Commission.
   e) Beyond this inequality, many votes are wasted, meaning that they have little or no impact on the electoral outcome. This undermines legitimacy, encourages tactical voting and may discourage turnout, all of which are undemocratic principles.
   f) The two-party system represents a lack of true competition in UK elections, which undermines liberal and pluralist democratic principles. The only accountability that voters can often exercise is to choose the other major party, which is not a great deal of choice.
2. No
   a) It is widely understood by the public, not just in terms of how the ballot works but also how the winner of an election is calculated. As a result of this, an educated public is more likely to turn out to vote, which improves the legitimacy of the resulting government.
   b) The governments that it has produced have largely been ‘strong and stable’. The 2010 coalition lasted the full term of Parliament.
   c) It is possible for smaller parties to do well, as the SNP demonstrated in 2015, while at the same time it can keep parties with more extreme political views out of office.
   - EXAMPLE. Whilst UKIP gained nearly 4 million votes but only 1 seat in 2015, its impact was still seen through the adoption of its major policy by the Conservative Party.
   d) The clear choice for voters in a 2 party system, and the likelihood of a single-party government, make it easier for the voters to hold the government to account by simply voting for the other major party.
   e) Proportional systems weaken or remove the link between geographical areas and the people who represent them. This link allows for an effective local representation of the whole of the UK in Parliament.

Question 18

What is a Referendum?

Answer 18

REFERENDUM

• A direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal (Direct Democracy within a representative system).
• They are called at the discretion of government (there is no constitutional mechanism requiring a PM to hold one).
• Referendums are not legally binding, and therefore it does not have legal force, it has to have Parliamentary approval, which has legal sovereignty (In the Republic of Ireland they are legally binding).
• Yet it is highly unlikely that the country’s elected representatives would ignore the will of the people.

Question 19

In what circumstance is a referendum held?

Answer 19

CIRCUMSTANCES FOR A REFERENDUM

1. The government might seek to get the public to legitimise a major government initiative/a controversial decision.
   a) They have mostly been used when the location of sovereignty might be affected.
   - Since the advent of Blair, it has become the accepted practice to secure a demonstration of public support before embarking on an important, possibly irreversible constitutional changes (Devolution to retain Labours power in local devolved bodies).
   - EXAMPLE. 1997 Referendums on devolution for Scotland and Wales and in Northern Ireland in the 1998 Good Friday Agreement.
   b) Although some issues of moving power, such as the creation of the UK Supreme Court, were not subject to a referendum.
2. A referendum might also work to get the government out of a difficult situation.
   a) They have been used when a government faces serious internal disagreements.
   b) By handing the responsibility to the people and insisting that colleagues then rally behind the popular verdict, the government can maintain its unity.
   - EXAMPLE. Harold Wilson held a referendum in 1975 on the ECC because his party was split between pro and anti-European factions. If he would’ve taken a particular position he would have faced damaging resignations from ministers on the other side (hence why he made it a free vote).
3. It may be the result of a deal between political parties.
   a) EXAMPLE. David Cameron agreed to hold a vote on changing the electoral system for Westminster to AV because this was a demand of the Liberal Democrats, as part of the coalition agreement in May 2010.
4. It may be held in response to pressure.
   a) EXAMPLE. In 2014, the government allowed a referendum on Scottish Independence due to pressure from the SNP majority government in Scotland.
   b) EXAMPLE. David Cameron did not initially want to hold an in/out EU referendum, but Europe had been a conflict zone within the Conservatives for decades.
   - He joined forces with the Lib Dems and Labour in October 2011 to defeat Conservative backbenchers who were pressing for a referendum.
   - Cameron changed his mind in January 2013 as the demand refused to go away, and he began to fear the possible loss of Conservative voters to UKIP if he did not concede (UKIP achieved 12.6% in the 2015 election which was 1/3rd of what the Conservatives achieved = 36.8%).
   - By announcing that he would hold a referendum if re-elected in 2015, he took the issue off the agenda at the ensuing election.
   - After the election he had to make good his promise, resulting in defeat for the ‘Remain’ side that he had championed and brought about his resignation as PM.

Question 20

What referendums have there been in the UK since 1973?

Answer 20

REFERENDUMS

1. Northern Ireland - March 1973.
   a) Should Northern Ireland leave the UK and form a united Ireland? (58.7% turnout).
   b) Yes = 1.1%.
   c) No = 98.9%.
2. UK - June 1975.
   a) Membership of the European Economic Community (Common Market - ECC)? (63.2% turnout).
   b) Remain = 67.2%.
   c) Leave = 32.8%.
3. Scotland - March 1979.
   a) Devolution of powers to Scotland (Assembly)? (63.7% turnout).
   - Yet it was rejected due to poor voter turnout (stipulated that it would be repealed if less than 40% of the total electorate voted “Yes” in the referendum - only represented 32.9% of the population).
   b) Yes = 51.6%.
   c) No = 48.4%.
4. Wales - March 1979.
   a) Devolution of powers to Wales (Assembly)? (58.3% turnout).
   - A similar situation to Scotland.
   b) Yes = 20.3%.
   c) No = 79.7%.
5. Scotland - September 1997.
   a) Establishment of a Scottish Parliament? (60.4% turnout).
   b) Yes = 74.3%.
   c) No = 25.7%.
6. Scotland - September 1997.
   a) Tax varying powers for Scottish Parliament? (60.4% turnout).
   b) Yes = 63.5%.
   c) No = 36.5%.
7. Wales - September 1997.
   a) Establishment of a Welsh Assembly? (50.1% turnout)
   a) Yes = 50.3%.
   b) No = 49.7%.
8. London - May 1998.
   a) Establishment of a London Mayor and Greater London Assembly? (34% turnout).
   b) Yes = 72.0%.
   c) No = 28.0%.
9. Northern Ireland - May 1998.
   a) Approval of the Good Friday Agreement? (81% turnout).
   b) Yes = 71.1%.
   c) No = 28.9%.
10. North-East England - November 2004.
    a) Creation of an elected regional assembly? (48% turnout).
    b) Yes = 22.0%.
    c) No = 78.0%.
11. Wales - March 2011.
    a) Extension of powers/Primary legislation for the Welsh Assembly? (35.6% turnout).
    b) Yes = 63.5%.
    c) No = 36.5%.
12. UK - May 2011.
    a) Change the Westminster Electoral System to AV (Alternative Vote)? (42.2% turnout).
    b) Yes = 32.1%.
    c) No = 67.9%.
13. Scotland - September 2014.
    a) Scottish Independence? (84.6% turnout).
    - 16 and 17-year-olds were allowed to vote.
    b) Yes = 44.7%.
    c) No = 55.3%
14. UK - June 2016.
    a) Remain or Leave the EU (72.2% turnout).
    b) Remain = 48.1%.
    c) Leave = 51.9%.

Question 21

How did the result of the 2016 EU referendum change across the UK?

Answer 21

2016 EU REFERENDUM

1. Regions
   a) England as a whole voted Leave by 53%.
   - London was strongly Remain at 59% as were most of the wealthier Home Counties in the commuter belt.
   b) Most of England outside of the major urban areas voted Leave.
   - Boston (East Midlands) = 75.6% leave.
   c) Wales voted Leave by 53%.
   d) Scotland voted Remain by 62%.
   e) Northern Ireland voted Remain by 56%.
2. Voting demographics
   a) Leave voters tended to be predominantly white, older and working class.
   b) Remain voters were mostly under 55, with many being university educated, professionals and middle class.
   c) Both Oxford and Cambridge voted Remain by an overwhelming margin.
   - Both at 70%+ remain.
   d) The most strongly Leave areas, such as Essex (nearly 70% Leave) often had the fewest immigrants.
   e) The most strongly Remain areas (Southwark, Lambeth and inner London over 70%) were the most diverse
3. Party alignment
   a) There is strong evidence that many traditional Labour voters opted for Leave as an anti-government vote.
   b) Conservative voters voted Leave by nearly 60%.

Question 22

Who regulates Referendum campaign expenditures and conduct?

Answer 22

ELECTORAL COMMISSION

1. Since 2000, the conduct of referendums has been regulated by the Electoral Commission.
   a) This independent body is responsible for checking the wording of the referendum question to ensure it’s objective.
   - EXAMPLE. In 2016, the government had originally proposed to ask: ‘Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union?’. Yet they considered it to be insufficiently neutral and should present two options: ‘Should the United Kingdom remain a member of the European Union or leave the European Union?’.
2. They also monitor expenditure by rival campaigning groups and designates one approved ‘Lead campaign organisation’ of both sides.
   a) EXAMPLE. In the EU 2016 vote, they were: ‘Vote Leave’ and ‘Britain Stronger in Europe’
   - This designation entitled them to receive a pre-determined amount of funding.
3. EXAMPLE. ‘Vote Leave’ breaking electoral law.
   a) The watchdog said it exceeded its £7m spending limit by funnelling £675,315 through pro-Brexit youth group BeLeave.
   - BeLeave’s limit was £10,000.
   b) Vote Leave spent nearly £2.7m of its £7m budget on the services of a Canadian digital marketing firm, Aggregate IQ.
   c) A further £675,315 was sent to Aggregate IQ by BeLeave, a group set up by Mr Grimes, then a fashion student at Brighton University.
   d) Vote Leave also returned an “incomplete and inaccurate spending report”, with almost £234,501 reported incorrectly, and invoices missing for £12,849.99 of spending, the watchdog said.

Question 23

Should Referendums be used in a Representative Democracy in the UK?

Answer 23

SHOULD REFERENDUMS BE USED IN A REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY

1. Yes
   a) Referendums involve the people directly in the decision-making on important issues (a very real form of direct democracy/ legitimising important controversial matters).
   - In a democracy, the electorate has the right to be consulted and heard (popular sovereignty).
   - In general elections, people are expressing a view on a great many policy matters, making it hard for singular issues to be heard.
   - The virtue is that it enables a single issue to be isolated so that an unambiguous popular verdict can be given.
   - Some issues (EU Vote), may even cut across party lines (pro- and anti-EU politicians) so a real choice cannot be given in a general election.
   b) Referendums are a check on the UK ‘elective dictatorship’ (deal with a flaw within the mandate theory as voters can vote an opinion on a controversial major issue).
   - The dominance of the commons gives undue power, which the electorate has control of only once every 5 years.
   - This enhances a sense of liberal democracy as it allows people to have more control over the direction of the country (preventing the government from becoming remote and unaccountable by restricting its influence).
   c) They demonstrate clear public support for change (a clear answer to a question that the government might be asking with a binary vote).
   - Referendums settle arguments and entrench reforms.
   - Not to say that such a change could never be reversed by a future Parliament, but to do so would ignite another major public debate.
   - EXAMPLE. Demonstrations of support for the Scottish and Northern Irish devolved assemblies and the peace process has helped bring stability for the new institutions created in these parts of the UK.
   d) It raises voters’ political awareness (increases political participation).
   - EXAMPLE. The Scottish referendum (Sept 2014) has been praised for giving an opportunity to air a wide range of issues related to independence including the likely impact of independence on the economy, the future of the nuclear deterrent based on the River Clyde and Scotland’s relationship with the EU.
   e) The conduct of referendums has been subject to independent supervision by the Electoral Commission.
   - This reduces the chance that the results will be skewed as a result of unfair influence.
   - The expenditure of the competing sides in limited and the wording of the referendum question is subject to review by an independent body.
   f) They unite a divided party on a single issue or to combat any competition.
   - Many parties hold different factions within their wing (moderate-radical).
   - EXAMPLE. Harold Wilson held a referendum in 1975 because his party was split.
   - EXAMPLE. David Cameron tried to remove the threat of UKIP in 2016, yet perhaps encouraged the rise of the Brexit party blooming from the incompetence of Theresa May’s Brexit government.
   g) As referendums are advisory, Parliament remains sovereign and can implement the decision in an effective manner.
   - Although the public voted to leave the EU, Parliament decides on the manner of the withdrawal.
2. No
   a) They are a challenge to Parliamentary Sovereignty (issues might be too complex for a mere yes/no vote).
   - Voters elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf (trustee model).
   - Ordinary people lack the expertise to make decisions on the complex question without all knowledge and understanding around it.
   - EXAMPLE. Whether Britain should join the Euro (a subject that the New Labour government declared that it would put to the popular vote if it ever recommended joining).
   b) If the arguments are not explained clearly to the public, popular participation may be low.
   - EXAMPLE. This was a factor in the low turnout in the 2011 referendum on electoral reform.
   - EXAMPLE. After the 2016 EU vote, the Electoral Commission reported that the arguments used by the leaders of both campaigns included a degree of distortion, and there should be greater regulation of referendum campaigns to ensure that people receive a fair presentation of the arguments.
   c) Governments choose whether or not to call a referendum which concentrates power in the government rather than limiting it.
   - EXAMPLE. Blair and Brown denied the electorate a say on the Lisbon Treaty of 2007, which extended the process of European integration, on the grounds that previous governments had not held popular votes on treaties. This caused outrage among the opposition, who maintained that voters had been denied a chance on an agreement that transferred significant authority to the EU
   Governments.
   - They are sometimes held for their own political purposes such as to defuse the opposition (2011 referendum) and overcome their differences.
   d) Low turnout has been the norm (The regular use of referendums could lead to voter apathy among the public with ‘voter fatigue’).
   - Low turnouts can distort the results, as results might as well be indecisive (around the benchmark 50%).
   - There have been some outstanding exceptions (Scottish Independence 2014) when 16 and 17-year-olds could vote.
   - This limits the legitimacy of the decisions.
   - EXAMPLE. Only 34% of those who could have voted in the “Do you want a Mayor for London?” actually voted. 72% of these voted ‘yes’, 28% voted ‘no’. But 66% of Londoners failed to vote at all. This low turn out clearly favoured the supporters of the Mayor.
   e) Outcomes of referendums can be influenced by factors that have nothing to do with the subject being put before the electorate.
   - They can be a way of registering a protest against the government of the day.
   - EXAMPLE. The defeat if the Alternative Vote proposal in 2011 referendum was affected by the unpopularity of the Liberal Democrats.
   f) There are effective alternatives: opinion polls/by-elections.
   - Other methods of measuring public approval of policy may be cheaper and quicker (EU 2016 referendum cost £129 million).
   - The data may be indecisive/too close to call in a referendum (near 50%-50% in the EU referendum).
   g) Funding differences can affect results with government support.
   - Government money can pour into a referendum and the group on the other side may well be not so well-financed.
   - EXAMPLE. The watchdog said Vote Leave exceeded its £7m spending limit by funnelling £675,315 through pro-Brexit youth group BeLeave in the 2016 EU referendum.
   h) Close results can be more decisive rather than settling an issue, as seen in Brexit.
   - The wishes of minority groups may be ignored by the ‘Tyranny of the Majority’.
   - The results might be indecisive (for EU independence there was a 52/48 split).