1450-1750 pt. 2 Flashcards
Atlantic Slave Trade
Slavery had existed in Africa since ancient times; tribes often took prisoners from neighboring tribes and enslaved them
Many African societies did not recognize private land ownerships, so land did not equal wealth in the way that owning slaves did
Spread of Islam established new trade routes across the northern part of African continent, bringing African slaves to the Middle EAst as well
By the time Euroepans ventured in sub-Saharan Africa, slave trade had been well-established on the continent for 500 years
Portuguese explored west coast of Africa in 1500s and began exporting slave to plantations in Brazil
Slave trade had become transoceanic, and proftis from it encouraged other European powers to enter the business
Forced migration of over 15 million Africans to the New World, one of the most significant components of the Columbian Exchange
By mid 1600s, thousands of slaves were brought across the ocean each month
This trans-Atlantic journey known as Middle Passage, consisted of a 4 to 6 week trip belowdecks in overcrowded ships
Death toll high, as many as half of the enslaved Africans on any one ship dying from disease or brutal mistreatment
Most african slaves were sent to Brazil or sugar plantations in the Caribbean
Triangular trade that developed sent European manufactured goods (firearms, in particular) to Africa in exchange for slaves, slaves to the Caribbean and American mainland, and American products (resources) back to Europe
Atlantic slave trade and institution of slavery had enormous impact on the economies of Portuguese and Spanish colonies of South America as well as on the Durch, French, and British colonies of the Caribbean and North America
Labor of enslaved Africans produce huge profits in the extraction of gold and silver from mines, as well as in the production of cash crops such as sugar, cotton, rice, and tobacco
As more slave were brought to the coast, African kingdoms reoriented their economies to trade with Europeans
Some AFrican societies benefited economically from trade, but several experienced severe population loss and a drastic change in male female ratio
Because many slaves were traded for guns, addition of firearms led to an increase in violent political conflict in Africa
Though many enslaved Africans were Christianized by Europeans, they retained parts of their language and culture
Unique cultural synthesis occurred, as African music, dress, and mannerisms mixed with Spanish and indigenous cultures in the Americas
Labor Systems in the Americas (pre Atlantic slave trade)
Early Spanish settlers in the CAribbean needed to recruit a great deal of labor
Encomienda system
switch to Repartimiento system
Many communities were required to send large groups of laborers work on state projects
Mita system
Demise of these systems led to establishment of Atlantic slave trade and widespread use of slave labor in the Americas
Encomienda system
Encomienda system established by Spanish crown granted colonists the right to demand labor of native peoples in the mines and fields
Laborers were worked hard and punish severely
Conquistadors like Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro brought this system to the Americas
Repartimiento system
On haciendas, natives were often abused; as a result, Spanish officials replaced encomienda system with repartimiento system, compelled native communities to supply labor for Spanish mines and farms like encomienda, but limited work time and mandated that wages be paid to native workers
Mita system
In peru, labor system called Mita mobilized thousands of natives to work in silver mines
They were paid wages, but there were also many abuses
Mita system had disastrous impact on indigenous populations of Peru, as it drained them of able bodied workers at a time when their communities were experiencing huge population losses due to epidemics of Old World disease, also led to indigenous people fleeing their communities to avoid being compelled into service
With fewer workers able to work in fields, agricultural production decreased, leading to famine and malnutrition
European Renaissance
In early 15th century, beginning on Italian peninsula, new ways of thinning about nature of humanity and the world emerged
Crusades had brought southern Europe into contact with the Arab world, increasing international contact and trade
Scholars uncovered long lost Roman and Greek literature that had been preserved by Islamics scholars
In reference to this reemergence of ancient knowledge, intellectual revival called the Renaissance
Hallmarks of the Renaissance include: a new view of man as a creative rational being; a rediscovery of ancient Greco-Roman knowledge; unparalleled accomplishments in literature, music, and art; celebration of the human individual
Renaissance Italy was patchwork of feudal domains, with landes belonging to Roman Catholic Church, kingdoms, and city states
Famous noble families such as the Medicis had grown wealthy as merchants, since Italy was ideally located for receiving good from the Middle East and Asia along Mediterranean trade routes
Lucrative trade with Islamic and Byzantine cultures allowed wealthy Italians to become patrons of painters, sculptors, and scientists
Period was also a celebration of Roman past; classical architecture and engineering were reexamined and relearned
1456, Johann Gutenberg of Germany printed complete edition of Bible using first printing press in the west (Chinese had been using movable type for centuries)
Printing revolution brought great change
Printed books were less expensive and easier to read than copied manuscripts
Increase in availability of books led to rapid rise in literacy
European readers gained access to wide range of knowledge on subjects including medicine, law, mathematics, and philosophy
Along with helping to spread classical knowledge and REnaissance ideals, new printing press helped fuel a European religious upheaval during 1500s: Protestant Reformation
Protestant Reformation
Just as Renaissance inspired an ear of exploration, also created an atmosphere that encouraged debate and criticism of existing order
Most powerful institution of the day was the Catholic Church, headquartered in Rome
Had held great power over kings and peasants alike for centuries, and had grown large, wealthy, and corrupt
Practices such as selling forgiveness and salvation began to offend even those in the priesthood
Movement to reform the Church grew out of these concerns
In 1517, German priest Martin Luther posted list of issues with the Church
Martin Luther Main Issues
Divisions within papacy, in which more than one pope claimed authority
Religious traditions and rituals that were not derived from the scriptures
Corrupt practices such as the sale of religious relics and indulgences
Mismanagement of Church finances lack of piety in the priesthood
Martin Luther and fellow reforms unleashed storm of controversy which eventually split Catholic Church and divided Europe
Luther was excommunicated from the Church, but gained sympathy of German princes who adhered to his version of Christianity
German lands were divided into hundreds of small kingdoms and ruled by Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V of Spain, a staunch Catholic
Many of the northern German princes resented having to support both the Church and a non-German emperor
German kingdoms became divided into Catholics siding with the Church and Protestants siding with Luther
Resulting conflict devastated German lands, but ended in a treat (Peace of Augsburg, 1555) that enabled each prince to decide with religion would be the religion of their domain
Most states in northern Germany chose Lutheranism, while south remained largely Catholic
Protestant movement spread from central Europe to Netherlands, switzerland, France, and Denmark
English King Henry VIII, once strong supporter of Catholic Church, fell away after dispute regarding his marriage
With help of Parliament, created the Church of England, of which the English monarch was the head
The Thirty Years’ War
Religious upheavals of Protestant Reformation came to violent conclusion with thirty Years’ War
Peace of Augusburg had not resolved religious tensions between Catholicism and Lutheranism, nor did it account for the rise of other Protestant denominations like Calvinism
Spain sought to expand its hold over the Netherlands into German states
France also sought influence in Germany and found itself (Catholic) backing Protestant German states
Northern European countries like Sweden sought control over Baltic Sea
Result, from 1618 to 1648, was a war that devastated Central Europe and Italy
The Thirty Years’ War ranks among the worst catastrophes in European history
Great mount of death ni Germany and Czechoslovakia, geopolitically, map of Europe was rewritten
Spain lost control of Portugal and the Netherlands, France enjoyed upswing in geopolitical power
Peace of Westphalia in 1648, ended the war, notable for establishing foundation of modern nation state
Ruler of a given state was now paramount, any other religious or secular authority not able to claim control over people of that state
Widespread, horrific actions taken by mercenary armies during the war, as well as strengthening of central state authority during after the war, led to European states favoring profession national armies over mercenaries
The Thirty Years’ War was last major religious war in continental Europe
Sunni-Shi’a Split Widens
Safavid Dynasty was critical in Shi’a Islam becoming the majority religion of present-day Iran
State-sponsored conversion campaign took place over 16th through 18th centuries and resulted in hostilities between Shiites and Sunnis, as centuries o partial accommodation for divergent beliefs in Persia were discarded
Occasionally brutal process resulted in a great deal of ill-will from Sunnis and contributed to the long-running conflict between Iran (then Persia) and the Ottomans, even after the downfall of the Safavid Dynasty
While two major denominations of Islam had existed since 7th century, gulf between them widened in this period due to the Ottoman-Iranian Wars
These wars were a series of conflicts that took place between 16th and 19th centuries
Not only did two empires fight over regional power and control of territory, but conflict was also intensified because Ottomans were Sunni and Safavids were Shi’a
In historical terms, insection of sectarianism and geopolitics in Ottoman-Safavid tensions is comparable to present day Saudi-Iranian tensions
Sectarian division also helped foster odd alliances, as Safavids sought Christian European aid against common Ottoman foe, and European power could rely on sectarian divided to align with Safavids against their fellow Islamic power
Formal Habsburg-Persian alliance was attempted, but existed more as matter of circumstance than legally binding agreement
Later Safavid missions to various European courts around turn of the 17th century led to agreements with Britain, and in 18th century diplomatic relations were opened with the French
Treaty of Zuhab, signed in 1639, fixed borders between the Sfavid and Ottoman empires, which persist as present day Iran-Iraq and Iran-Turkey borders
After 1639, two empires would not go to war again until 1730
Foundation of Sikhism
In north of Indian subcontinent, Guru Nanak founded Sikhism around turn of 16th century
Example of syncretism, bridges Hinduism and Islam, incorporating beliefs from both while maintaining an anti-sectarian stance
Sikhism led by a series of gurus, who would modify its practices
Priestesses would be allowed, divorce legalized, and both veils and sati banned
Initially a pacifistic faith, would grow militant in response to violent prosecution under the Mughal Empire from the mid-17th century onward, culminating foundation of Sikh Empire
Sikhism would maintain its focus on social justice
The Enlightenment
Thomas Hobbes’ and John Locke’s ideas provided philosophical foundation for the Enlightenment
Locked believed in self government
According to Locke, people possess natural rights to life, liberty, and property, and government’s purpose is to protect these rights
If gov fails at this, people had the right to overthrow it (this notion inspired revolutionary thought in Europe and America)
Hobbes believed strong ruler was foundation of any social order, anything else led to destructive chaos
Hobbes said that rights exist because of the state, only through a strong ruler and willing submission of people ot laws of that ruler can rights exist, otherwise humans enjoyed no rights or freedoms
Started in England with Hobbes, Locke, and Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica, by 1687 centered in Paris, reached its peak in mid 1700s
intellectuals called philosophes, believed reason could be applied to both human relationships and natural world
Enlightenment emphasis on free thought led to questioning of traditional authority, both the Church and monarchy were challenged, and political radicalism of the Enlightenment caused great anxiety in courts of Europe
However, Catholic and Protestant churches were not necessarily wholy uninvolved with development of Enlightenment
As a result of Roman Catholic mission in China, Jesuits brought back Chinese knowledge to Europe
Confucian civil service exams influenced European rulers, and rational morality of Confucianism appears to Enlightenment philosophers
Scientific Revolution
Development of modern science and Enlightenment philosophical ideas had tremendous impact on development of modern world and modern mentality
Prior to 1500, scholars relied mostly on classical texts and the Bible to answer questions about the natural word
Scientific Revolution began as scientists challenged conventional ideas and used observation to understand structure ndc composition of the universe
Copernicus paved way for modern astronomy, heliocentric theory of the universe in 1543, contradicting Church’s belief
Galileo galilei constructed own telescope in 1609, findings angered both Catholic and Protestant leaders because they challenged Biblical accounts and authority of Christian churches
Galileo was put on trial before the Inquisition and forced read a signed confession which stated his ideas were false
Scientific Revolution led to development of scientific method
Scientific method led to significant advances in physics, biology, medicine, and chemistry, plus development of social sciences
