1200-1450

Question 1

Belief systems: Shinto

Answer 1

Indigenous religion of Japan
Early Japanese people believed that spirits were present in their natural surroundings
These beliefs coalesced into shinto religion
People built shrines to honor kami, and Japanese emperors claimed to descend from the supreme Shinto deity, the sun goddess Amaterasu

Question 2

Belief systems: Hinduism

Answer 2

Originated in India, but creation cannot be linked to specific time or person, a belief system that evolved over time
Hinduism actually refers to a wide variety of beliefs and practices that developed in South Asia
Often described as not only a religion, but a way of life
At most basic level, Hindus believe they have a dharma roughly translated as duty to perform in life
If all follow their dharma world works smoothly if it is violated, natural order falls out of sync, dharmia is determined by birth and one’s stage in life
If one follows their dharma then karma will be the result, accumulation of good karma that allows someone to move up in level cast in their next life
Polytheistic religion that believes in Brahma, creator god, and various incarnations
Hindus believe they will be reincarnated after death, new position they assume in the next life will depend on how well they performed their dharma in the past life, ultimate goal of Hindus is to end the cycle of reincarnation by finally reaching oneness with the universe

Question 3

Belief Systems: Buddhism

Answer 3

Founder of buddhism, Siddartha Gautma
Four noble truths
All life is suffering
Suffering is caused by desire
There is a way out of suffering
The way out of suffering is to follow the Eightfold path
Ultimate goal for Buddhists is to reach Nirvana, release from cycle of reincarnation
Buddhism took central ideas of Hinduism, but altered them significantly
People do not need rituals, and gods and goddesses are not necessary; everyone can seek enlightenment on his or her own, and no one is an outcast by birth
Challenges the historically established caste system in India

Question 4

Belief Systems: Daoism

Answer 4

Laozi founded daoism in China during 6th century BCE, around same time as Confucius
Human being should exist in harmony with nature
Useless to try to build institutions to govern men, because institutions or anything that rewards knowledge) are dangerous
Led to competition and eventually to fighting
The less government interference, the better
Ideal state is a small, self-sufficient town
Counterpoint to proper behavior of confucianism

Question 5

Belief systems: Confucianism

Answer 5

Confucius was a philosopher who believed that the key to ending the chaos of his time and bringing back peace was to find the right kind of leadership to rule China
Two most important concepts were appropriate feelings (ren) and correct actions (li), which must be used together in order to have any effect
Filial piety, respect for one’s parents
Became the most influential philosophy in China, ideas spread to Korea and Japan, where they also had significant influence
Confucius taught that order would be achieved when people knew proper roles and relationships to others
Five key relationships - ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, and friends

Question 6

Belief systems: Neo-Confucianism

Answer 6

Remodeled form of Confucianism, developed in the 9th century as a response to Buddhism and Daoism
Rejected mysticism in favor of a rationalist approach, emphasizing individual self improvement and goodness of humanity
Reworked some concepts and principles from Buddhism
Neo-Confucianism dominated Chinese philosophy from the late Tang Dynasty until the 20th century, and it spread to Japan, Vietnam, and Korea

Question 7

Belief systems: Judaism

Answer 7

Hebrews sporadically conquered by neighboring empires such as Assyrians, Babylonians, and Romans, maintained their cultural identity through their religion, Judaism
Uprisings against the Romans were violently suppressed with large military campaigns
Many Jews were killed and their holiest temple was leveled
Romans drove the Jews out of their homeland, scatter of Jews called the Diaspora, survived in scattered communities around the Mediterranean region, Persia, and CEntral Asia
Monotheistic religion

Question 8

Belief systems: Christianity

Answer 8

Jesus taught that all people were equal and that the faithful would experience eternal life in heaven with God
Ideas especially appealed to the lower classes, slaves, and women, alarmed Roman authorities
In order to quell a potential rebellion, had Jesus executed, rose up
Several schisms have affected Christianity since formation
Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church disagreed over religious practices, such as worship of idols
Pope and patriarch excommunicated each other in 1054, East-West Schism
Originally core aspect of Byzantine Empire, Eastern Orthodox christianity spread to the Slavic people and Russia
Later Protestantism

Question 9

Belief systems: Islam

Answer 9

Prior to introduction of Islam, inhabitants of ARabian Peninsula, or Bedouins, lived in nomadic tribes led by sheikhs
Settlements arose along trade routes, as Arabs transported products between the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean
Although patriarchy dominated Arabian social structures, women were allowed to inherit property, initiate divorce agreements, and participate in business dealings
Most arabs practice polytheistic form of religion, with principal god Allah, though idol worship of lesser deities was commonplace as Allah was viewed as a remote figure

Dispute over succession of Muhamad, prophet and political leader
Shi’a: believed that Muslim leader should be a descendant of Muhammad
Sunni: believed that the wisest member of the strongest tribe should succeed Muhammad
Split between Shi’a and Sunni Muslims led to religious and political divisions in Muslim world that still endure today

Islam has five pillars
No god but Allah, Muhammad is messenger of God
Pray five times a day facing Mecca
Give alms to the poor
Fast during holy month of Ramadan
Make a pilgrimage, hajj, to Mecca during one’s lifetime, if able

Universal religion that promises salvation to all who believe and follow its principles, Islam appealed to women because the Quran afforded women equal status to men before God, outlawed female infanticide, and permitted wives to keep their dowries
However, Quran allowed inheritance to be restricted to male offspring, also restricted womens socials experiences in order to protect legitimacy of offspring
In general, Islam appealed to poor and powerless, fostered strong sense of brotherhood

Question 10

Mexica Empire

Answer 10

Mexica (also called Aztec0 people occupied territory in Mesoamerica, and the capital city Tenochtitlan
Militant warrior tradition characterized their culture
Developed a system of feudalism which had similarities to that of Japan and Europe
Mexica were ruled by a single monarch, who exerted power over local rulers
Mexica had an agricultural economy, with cacao beans sometimes used as currency
Practiced chinampa agriculture where they cultivated crops in rectangular plots of land on lake beds
Priestly class oversaw polytheistic religious rituals which sometimes included human sacrifice
Although society was patriarchal, women were able to own property and agree to business contracts

Question 11

Inca Empire

Answer 11

Chimor, king, Cuzco, Mita, roads, agriculture, quipu

Indigenous clans in Andean highlands of South America developed a rich and complex culture, leading to rise of an empire in the 15th century
These people, the Incas, conquered a large territory and absorbed many groups in central and western South America
Conquered Chimor Empire
Centralized, led by a king and a privileged class of nobles
Capital city was Cuzco
Mandatory public service system, called Mita, where people has to serve for two months out of the year
System allowed Inca to develop an extensive road system, as well as provide armies that overwhelmed targets of imperial conquest
Lacked steel or iron, weapons made of wood, bone, stone, and copper
Economy rooted in agriculture, as people had adapted to steep, rugged terrain of the Andes, with use of extensive irrigation techniques
Message runners chewed on coca leaves to maintain energy
Religion was polytheistic, based on worship of the sun, incorporated ancestor worship
System of record keeping called quipu, recorded numeric data, tax obligations and census records

Question 12

Maya City-States

Answer 12

Maya cosmos divided into three parts: the heavens above, humans at the enter, and underworld below
Built impressive pyramids, warfare was imbued with sacred significance, religious rituals would precede battle
Huge contributions to mathematics and astronomy, particularly concept of zero, also modern calendar with 365 days

Question 13

Cahokia

Answer 13

Cahokia Mounds are remnants of a pre-Columbian settlements of the Mississippian culture
Cahokia believed to have been an important religious center
Agriculture centered around corn
Little known

Question 14

Chinese Empire: Commonalities across Dynasties

Answer 14

mandate, exam, canal, neo-confucianism, superiority

Three dynasties of note during this period: Song, Yuan, Ming
Mandate of heaven, ancient Chinese concept stating the right to rule was granted by heavens
Because power was divinely given, direct connection between ruler and god
If justice and order were not maintained, mandate could be revoke, with events such as floods, earthquakes, and peasant rebellions being indications from the gods that end neared for a dynasty
Imperial bureaucracy and civil service examination system
By the time of the Song, exam allowed for entry of gentry and commoners to the bureaucracy
Third, Grand Canal, an economically vital series of waterways that linked the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers
This canal connected the fertile Huang He River to the highly populated cities in the north, allowing grain t be shipped easily
Farmers also took advantage of the Grand Canal’s complex irrigation network and improved road networks: the increased food supply facilitated population growth
Maintaining and occasionally expanding Grand Canal was a vital duty of the chinese imperial state
Fourth, Neo-Confucianism was at forefront of Chinese philosophy, also influential in Japan and Korea
Delegations from “outside” such as Japan or Siam, had to show great deference to Chinese emperor in his presence with kowtow
This symbolized Chinese perception that they were superior to all foreigners

Question 15

Song Dynasty: Political Development

Answer 15

Song Dynasty ended “Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms” period, reestablished centralized control over China
Song Dynasty deemphasized a military approach to security, instead reestablished tribute system with nomad neighbors, in which Chinese provided nomads with gifts in exchange for peace
Despite system peace did not endure
Song’s scholar-controlled army was often ineffective, an excess of paper money in circulation caused inflation
Song split into two periods: Northern Song and Southern Song
By 1126, China had lost the northern half of the empire to the semi-nomadic Jurchen, also called Jin Dynasty
Song imperial court relocated capital to Lin’an south of Yangtze River, despite defeat, sSouth Song held out against both Jurchen and later Mongols for decade
Military threats from the north continued and finally most powerful of all northern groups invaded, absorbed Song Dynasty into new Mongol Empire in 13th century

Question 16

Song Dynasty: Economic and Technological Development

Answer 16

Economic revolution began under Tang Dynasty, continued under Song rule
Followed vietnamese agricultural practices, began to cultivate champa rice, which improved crop yields
Population continued to increased
Earliest joint-stock companies developed in Song China, as investors sought fortune in domestic and international shipping
First gunpowder weapons developed, iron and copper production grew massively
Capital of Kaifeng became manufacturing center for cannons, movable type printing, water-powered mills, looms, and high-quality porcelain
AFter Song lost control of Northern China, Southern Song established capital at Hangzhou, commerce soared there as well
Ocean trade with East Africa, southeast Asia, India, and Persia grew, especially due to naval innovations such as cotton sails and magnetic compass
Because trade was so successful, copper supplies dwindled; paper currency and letters of credit, known as flying cash, emerged as forms of monetary compensation

Question 17

Song Dynasty: Cultural Development

Answer 17

Civil service exam system retained great prominence during Song rule
Checked the power of the landed aristocracy and fostered development of a powerful elite known as scholar gentry
Ceramics, painting, and sculpture grew in prominence during song Dynasty, as did poetry
Spread of gunpowder resulted ind development of fireworks
Buddhism decline as Neo-Confucianism rose in popularity

Question 18

Korea

Answer 18

Divided in two dynasties for much of world history: Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392) and the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1897)
Goryeo unified Korean Peninsula into one political body; modern name of Korea is derived from Goryeo
Ruled by families from military class, Goryeo notably resisted conquest by Mongols for nearly three decades, until eventually pledged allegiance to Mongols as a client
Royal family began to intermarry with Mongols princesses from Yuan Dynasty
weakened by decades of warfare and Mongol influence in their government, Goryeo were overthrown and Joseon Dynasty was established

Question 19

Japan: Political Development

Answer 19

small, samurai, code, shogunate, daimyo

Geography led to development of small, independent communities
Heian Period, Japanese emperor installed the new capital of Heian, during this era, weakness of Japan’s centralized government led local aristocrats to recruit samurai
These warriors followed their lord’s orders and defended his interests, and developed a strict warrior code called bushido
After several centuries of civil conflicts, Japanese noble, Minamoto no Yoritomo created a form of feudal military government
Under Kamakura shogunate (1192-1333) emperor became a symbolic figurehead, and shogun (supreme military general) controlled a centralized military government
Shogun divided Japanese land into regional feudal fiefdoms based on military power
Regional military leaders called daimyo led groups of samurai warriors
When mongols attempted to invade Japan in the 13th century, encountered this military and political system

Question 20

Japan: Economic Development

Answer 20

Predominantly agrarian society with artisan class of weavers, carpenters, andiron-workers
Trade, which focused on markets in larger towns and foreign exchange with Korea and China, developed during the Kamakura Period
Most Japanese people were peasants who worked on land owned by a lord or by a Buddhist monastery
Though their freedom was limited, peasants could keep what remained for their harvest after they paid their tax quota
Those unable to pay became landless laborers known as genin, who could be bought and sold with the land
As slaves, performed jobs such as burying dead or curing leather; eventually, these jobs would be associated with burakumin outcast group

Question 21

Japan: Cultural Development

Answer 21

Although Shintoism remained a significant force in Japan, society also welcomed Chinese and korean influences
Japanese people adopted Confucianism and buddhism, as well as Chinese technology and script
Japan also developed its own version of Buddhism known as Zen Buddhismin
In early Japanese society, women could inherit or own land
Over time, however, women lost much of their legal and social power
Many women, however, created literary works

Question 22

Islamic Golden Age

Answer 22

Spanned from 8th to 14th centuries
Period of notable cultural, intellectual, and military achievement
Internal political fragmentation as well as the Mongol Conquests would bring an end to this golden age

Question 23

Islamic Golden Age: Political Development

Answer 23

After first four caliphs, Umayyad Dynasty (661-750) took control in 661 and transformed caliphate into hereditary monarch with gov centered in Damascus
With its military expertise and weakness of the Byzantine and Persian Empires, the Umayyad Dynasty continued to conquer additional territories – including Syria, Egypt, Persia, North Africa, Spain, and Byzantine territory in West Asia
Set up a bureaucratic structure in which local administrators governed the conquered areas
All cultures were tolerated as long as they obeyed the rules of Islam, paid their taxes, and did not revolt
Arabic became language of administration, business, law, trade, and many conquered peoples converted to Islam
Abbasid Dynasty (750-1517) overthrew Umayyads and moved imperial capital to Baghdad
At the time Baghdad was second largest city in the world next to Chang’an
Size of Abbasid Empire made it difficult to control
Eventually, remaining Umayyad prince settled in Spain and established a separate caliphate there
Berber tribesmen controlled much of the northern Africa coast, and the Mamluks revolted and gained control over Egypt from 1250 to 1517
By mid 9th century, Abbasid political authority had become mostly symbolic and the caliphate was broken into smaller states
Despite this, culture of the Muslim world created a common bond from Spain to many parts of Africa, the Middle East, Central and South Asia, and Southeast Asian islands
Term Dar al-Islam refers to these areas in which a Muslim traveler or trader found himself welcome regardless of his homeland

Question 24

Islamic Golden Age: Economic Development

Answer 24

Trade flourished throughout the caliphate and beyond, as Muslim merchants relied on a common set of principle
Improved irrigation led to increased agricultural production and tax revenue
Many types of agriculture, including sugarcane, citrus fruits, and coffee, spread throughout the Islamic empire
Artisans flourished in the cities, as urban areas became centers for manufacturing pottery, fabrics, and rugs
paper, which was introduced from China, emerged as form of currency

Question 25

Islamic Golden Age: Cultural Development

Answer 25

infrastructure, scholars, reexamined, translated, universities

Mosques hospitals, and schools were built throughout the empire
Scholars developed intellectual fields such as algebra and medicine, and developed innovations such as the astrolabe and concepts of latitude and longitude
Muslim scholars also reexamined the works of Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle
Scholars at House of Wisdom, built in Baghdad during rule of fifth Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, sought out Greek and Persian texts and translated them into Arabic
14th century Moroccan geographer, Ibn Khaldun, wrote an economics, ethnography, world history, and sociology text
Universities were established in Cordoba, Toledo, and Granada
In arts and architecture, calligraphy and geometric shapes known as arabesques replaced depictions of idols

Question 26

Islamic Golden Age: Influence

Answer 26

Even though Islamic Golden Age decline and ended with the Mongol invasions, the influence of Islam continued to spread throughout the period
Islam spread to West AFrica through trans-Saharan trade, to East Africa and Southeast Asia through Indian Ocean trade, to Central Asia and China through the Silk Road trade, and to India through migrations of the Turks
By conclusion of this period Dar al-Islam had developed into one of the most dominant influences throughout the world

Question 27

Europe during late Middle Ages:
Political Development

Answer 27

Compared to Byzantium, China, and Islamic world, Western Europe remained politically decentralized following the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire
Instead, Europe developed system of feudalism, in which lords gave lands to vassals in exchange for military service and loyalty
This system allowed various lords and vassals to compete for power, in the absence of central authority
The one centralizing power in this period was the Roman Catholic Church and its ruler, the pope
By 13th century, Church owned approximately ⅓ of European land

Absence of strong central authority led many peasants to seek protection on large estates
These peasants became serfs; they had the right to work a portion of the land and could pass that right on to their children, but they could not leave their land
Serfs could keep a portion of their harvest, but they sent the majority of their earnings to their lord
Additionally, serfs paid taxes for using their lord’s mill, provided labor during agricultural off-seasons, and sent gifts on holidays to their lords
Lords estates became large, walled manors that were economically self-sufficient, maintained mills, bakeries, and breweries, private armies served by knights
Birth largely determined one’s social status
Marriage was key to political power, and marital alliances were crucial to a family’s continued social success
Women also entered convents, where some women could exercise leadership skills
Noblewomen had more power and authority than peasant women and could inherit land if they were widowed or without sons

However, feudalism was not a uniform system
There were regional variations that are important to distinguish
French feudalism perhaps best fits the classic decentralized model describe above
English feudalism developed along different, more organizationally cohesive lines
Magna Carta, written 1215, outlined specific rights and duties of the monarchy, English nobility, and Church all had to observe
Italian city-states boasted a feudalism that was more socially fluid, where birth didn’t necessarily cement social status
In Eastern Europe, feudalism developed along more stringent lines than in France, development of serfdom there firmly anchored the peasantry to the land they worked
In many towns and villages throughout Russia, serfdom functionally continued until the communist Revolution in 1918

Question 28

Europe during late Middle Ages: Cultural development

Answer 28

Christianity was principal source of religious, moral, and cultural authority throughout the Middle Ages, and strong papal leadership contributed to this authority
Monasteries, building complexes where monks dwelled, also developed throughout Europe, these sites often maintained large landholdings and servd as refuges for individuals in need, Monks preserved classical knowledge by hand-copying great works of literature and philosophy
End of the Medieval Warm Period, from 950 to 1250, meant that the European climate cooled
Crop yields shrank and good prices rose as nations like France experienced their first famines in centuries
Great Famine of 1315-1317 killed millions across Europe
Food shortages were so severe that widespread incidents of cannibalism and of children being abandoned may have provided the basis for fairy tales like Hansel and Gretel
Hundred Years’ War
Growth of power in both monarchies, especially in terms of collecting taxes and organizing professional armies, contributed to decline of feudalism in Western Europe

Question 29

Hundred Years’ War

Answer 29

From 1337-1453, English and french fought Hundred Years’ War, this conflict resulted in England losing its possessions in continental Europe save for Calais in northern France, and it led to rejection of French culture in England
Both kingdoms developed their national identities due to long-running clash with one another, with France gaining national heroine in Joan of Arc
French monarchy gained greater power as formerly loosely bound kingdom centralized in order to prosecute the war
rowth of power in both monarchies, especially in terms of collecting taxes and organizing professional armies, contributed to decline of feudalism in Western Europe

Question 30

Europe in late Middle Ages: Economic Development

Answer 30

As Europeans interacted with other regions, they adopted new agricultural techniques, such as three field system of crop rotation and foreign agricultural technologies such as iron plows, watermills, and horse harnesses
These innovations increased crop production and population sizes in Europe
While traditional feudal economy was solely based on agriculture in the countryside, new pre modern economy was evolving by 1100
During early medieval period, old Roman towns decreased in size
Now, after centuries of decline, increased trade began to stimulate growth of commercial cities in the heart of Europe
Most often located on riversides, towns grew into marketplaces and adopted foreign financial innovations, such as banks and bills of exchange
Service providers and craftspeople set up businesses in these towns, further stimulating growth
These cities began to plan their growth, regulate business, and collect taxes
Wealthy towns in italy invested in new buildings and statuary for their beautification

Question 31

representative examples of new urban centers in Europe during period

Answer 31

Bruges: located on river system that connected North Sea with Central Europe along the Rhine River, its cross-channel trade brought raw wool from England, which was converted into clothing to sell
Hamburg: a major port on the North Sea, Hamburg part of Hanseatic League, an alliance of trading cities and their merchant guilds, which controlled trade along the Northern European coast, The League regulated taxes and created rules for fair trade among the member cities
Florence: central Italian city that controlled flow of goods through the peninsula, called the Republic of Florence, this city-state became a center for banking and commerce by 1300

Question 32

The Crusades

Answer 32

Crusades were a series of Christian holy wars conducted against infidels — nonbelievers
Most significant crusade was a massive expedition led by Roman CAtholic Church to recapture Palestine, the land of Christian origins, from the Muslims
Pope Urban II launched the Crusades in 1095, when he urged Christian knights to take up arms and seize the Holy Land
AFter the First Crusade, the Christians captured Edessa, Antioch, and Jerusalem and divided that territory into feudal states
However, Muslim forces reorganized under the leadership of Saladin and retook Jerusalem in 1187
Fourth crusade never made it to the Holy Land, Crusaders, supported by merchants of Venic, conquered and sacked the Byzantine capital of Constantinople in 1204, which severely weakened the Byzantine Empire (precursor to collapse of Constantinople later)
Though quest for Holy Land was a failure, led to great economic developments in Europe
Encouraged trade with Muslim merchants and increased the European demand for Asian goods
As a result, Italian merchants from cities such as Venice and Genoa greatly profited, and Europe was reintroduced to the goods, technology, and culture of other regions