1200-1450 pt. 2

Question 1

The Turkic Peoples

Answer 1

Turkic people are a collection of various groups sharing the same language family and ethnicity
Generally, Turkic peoples originated as pastoral nomadic group from central Asia
First began to migrate out from the steppe at the end of the first millennium and were often hired by Muslim leaders as mercenaries
Seljuk Turks, who had converted to Islam, are one such example of nomads hired as mercenaries

Question 2

The Turkic Peoples: Seljuk Empire and Ottomans

Answer 2

By 1701, Seljuk Turks had defeated Byzantine Empire and conquered most of Anatolia outside of Constantinople
Following collapse of Seljuk Empire, new Turkic body arose at turn of 14th century, when leader Osman founded the Ottoman Empire
Ottomans would conquer Constantinople in 1453, bringing final end to Byzantine Empire

Question 3

The Turkic Peoples: Mamluk Sultanate

Answer 3

Stretched from Egypt across the Levant
Mamluk comes from the Arabic word for property, as Mamluks were slave-soldiers
Mostly but not exclusively Turkic people, they overthrew Ayyubid Dynasty in Egypt following defeat of a Crusader army in 1250
Decade later, successfully repelled a Mongol invasion
However, Mamluks were eventually conquered by Ottoman Empire in 1517

Question 4

The Turkic Peoples: Delhi Sultanate

Answer 4

Afghan Turks were nomads from Afghanistan
Began a series of raids into India in the 10th century
Looted cities for gold and jewels and destroyed Hindu temples
Wasn’t until 12th century that they started to govern after invading
This created Delhi Sultanate, which ruled northern India from 1206-1526
Afghan Turks introduced a strong Muslim presence in India

Question 5

The Mongol Empire

Answer 5

Mongols were a pastoral, nomadic groups from central Asian steppe
These nomadic herders lives revolved around their camels for transportation, horses for mobility, and sheep, goats, and yaks for food, clothing, and shelter
Clan-based society was organized around bloodlines
Tmujin, later renamed Genghis Khan, successfully united various Mongol tribes and created history’s largest contiguous land empire
Mongols greatest strength was their mobility
During wartime, every male from 15-70 had to serve
Each soldier was rewarded with captured goods and slaves
Mongols’ military strategy was also extremely effective, used psychological warfare and feigning retreats
Mongols were also skilled at using diplomacy to play enemies against one another and to weaken anti-Mongol alliances
One troops were united, Genghis Khan led them into CEntral Asia, Tibet, Northern China, and Persia
1215, Mongols attacked and destroyed Zhongdu (modern day Beijing)
Mongols had relatively few defeats, but failed to invade Delhi Sultanate and Japan
1227, Genghis Khan dies, regional control divided among four sons in forms of khanates, but supreme authority was passed to son Ogedei
By 1259, infighting over succession to position of Great Khan led to civil war and then fragmentation of the Mongol Empire
In total, Mongol conquests were fourth deadliest span of warfare in human history, with conservative estimates placing death toll at 30 to 40 million people, roughly 10 percent of the world’s population at the time

Question 6

Mongol Empire: Mongol Rule in China: The Yuan Dynasty

Answer 6

1279, Genghis Khan’s grandson, Kublai Khan, conquered southern Song Dynasty
First first time, China was under foreign rule
He created a Chinese-style dynasty, taking the name Yuan, and maintained a fixed and regular tax payment system and strong central gov
Foreigners instead of Chinese were employed in most bureaucratic positions and civil service exam was no longer used
Chinese were subject to different laws and were deliberately separated from the Mongols
In time, overland and maritime trade flourish
Though Mongols were not directly involved in trade, they welcome merchants and foreigners
Merchants converted their foreign currency to paper money when in China
Under Mongol rule, China prospered and mongol capital Khanbaliq developed into flourishing city
Mongol rulers only achieved a limited level of popularity among their Chinese subjects, due to discriminatory practices and high taxes
Red Turban Rebellion (1351-1368) would see Chinese overthrow Mongol conquerors
Zhu Yuanzhang, peasant turned Red Turban commander, would found Ming Dynasty

Question 7

Mongol Empire: Mongol Rule in Korea

Answer 7

When Mongols conquered Korea in 13th century, Goryeo dynasty maintained their local rule, with Korean kings marrying Mongol princesses
But by 1350s, with Yuan Dynasty destabilizing, Koreans expelled Mongol garrisons
AFter Mongols were overthrown in China, Goryeo Dynasty lost power in Korea and the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1897) emerged

Question 8

Mongol Empire: Mongol Rule in the Middle East: The Ilkhanate

Answer 8

1258, Kublai Khan’s brother Hulegu Khan defeated Abbasid Caliphate, conquered Mesopotamia and Persia, and burned city of Baghdad, destroying House of Wisdom
Over time, Mongols converted to Islam and began to mix with their conquered populations
Conquered populations’ local rulers were permitted to rule as long as they delivered tax revenue and maintained order
Though Mongols did not support agriculture, they did facilitate trade
As Mongols continued west,, were defeated in 1260 by armies of Mamluk Dynasty in Egypt

Question 9

Mongol Empire: Mongol Rule in Russia: The Golden Horde

Answer 9

During centuries before Mongol invasion, Russia was dominated by feudalism
Princes of Kiev, which also controlled Russian Orthodox Church, ruled according to the legal principles that the Byzantine emperor Justinian had created
When Mongol ruler Batu Khan conquered and ruled Russia, created the Mongol khanate called the Golden Horde, allowed many local rulers to keep power, and Russian bureaucrats collected peasants taxes, which were heavy during this time
Batu Khan’s Mongol descendant constituted upper social classes of the Golden Horde
Russian rulers of Muscovy, a territory north of Kiev, gained more control during Mongol rule by closely associating themselves with their Mongol rulers
Mongols maintained control until Prince Ivan III effectively ended rule in 1480 and formed the Russian State

Question 10

Mongol Empire: Pax Mongolica

Answer 10

Although mongol invasions initially interfered with trade and peace, period called the Mongol Peace or Pax Mongolia lasted during the 13th and 14th ecenturies, when vast areas of Eurasia were under Mongol rule
For about a century, Mongol rule united two continents and eliminated tariffs, which allowed for relatively safe trade and contacts between vastly different cultures
During this period, Silk Road trade reach its peak
Paper money, Chinese innovation, was used in many parts of the Mongol Empire
spread of gunpowder innovation
Mongols often adopted or converted to local religions or at least maintained religious tolerance

Question 11

Mongol Empire: Mongol Decline

Answer 11

In 1274 and 1281, Mongols tried to expand their empire again by invading Japan, but typhoon winds destroyed their fleets both times
Despite great military accomplishment, Mongol Empire lasted for only three or four generations
Mongols were successful conquerors but poor administrators
Overspending led to inflation in different regions of the empire, and after death of Kublai Khan, leadership was weak and ineffectual
Rivalry amonggreat Khan’s potential successors further destabilized the empire, and the vast domain was divided among various generals
By 1350, most of Mongols’ vast territory had been reconquered by other armies, and Mongols had largely assimilated into the societies that they had invaded

Question 12

Mali

Answer 12

Sundiata Keita established Mali Empire in 1230, but not until victory as Battle of Kirina in 1235 against Sosso, established Mali as strongest West African state during 13th and 14th centuries
Poem known as the Epic of Sundiata describes how he founded Mali
This poem exemplified African oral traditions; was composed and recited by Mali griots (storytellers)

Although most people in Mali were engaged in agriculture, kingdom of Mali prospered from participation in trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt
Kings of Mali controlled and taxed trade within their territories
Local Mali rulers served in religious and economic roles; they honored Islam, provided protection and lodging for merchants, and ensured kings of Mali received their tax income
People of Mali were encouraged, but not forced, to convert to Islam

Mansa Musa was Mali ruler, devout Muslime, went on pilgrimage to Mecca
Brought thousands of soldiers, attendants, subjects, and slave with him, plus camels carrying satchels of gold
Created period of inflation, which affected many regions along major trade routes, because he distributed so much gold to other people during his journey
Inspired by travels, built libraries, Islamic schools, and mosques throughout Kingdom
Timbuktu became Mali’s political capital and West AFrica’s cultural center of Islamic scholarship and art
Following 1350, after a series of kings that spent lavishly and misruled, provinces began to assert their independence and separate from Mali Empire, and its power and influence declined

Question 13

Northeastern African Kingdoms

Answer 13

Many inhabitants of North Africa converted Islam after 700 as ARab travelers spread their religious beliefs
Christianity also endured, however, especially in Egypt and Ethiopia
Ethiopia evolved into a kingdom with strong Christian traditions
Coptic Christianity stayed popular in Ethiopia and in Egypt a minority of Coptic Christians remained even after the introduction of Islam
In medieval period, Ethiopian Empire spanned the states of present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea, empire was ruled by Solomonic Dynasty from 1270-1974

Question 14

East African City-States

Answer 14

Populated by people who spoke Bantu languages and had migrated centuries earlier from Niger River Territory
These bantu people settled in cities along the East African coast
Although didn’t politically unite to form kingdoms, individual city-states such as Mogadishu, Kilwa, and Sofala prospered from participation in INdian Ocean trade with Muslim merchants during 7th and 8th centuries
In 900s, Islamic merchants traded gold, slaves, and ivory for pottery, glass, and textiles from Persia, India, and China
As East AFrican associated with Arab traders, Swahili language (mixes Bantu and ARabic) developed, because of this eAst AFrican city-states are often called Swahili city-states
Continued as important hubs of Indian Ocean trade until monopolization of sea lanes by European imperial powers
Kilwa visited by Zheng He
Much like Mail powerful city-states governed by kings
When converted to Islam for legitimacy and alliances, kings ruled as caliphs and taxed and controlled trade
Ruling elite and wealth merchants of East Africa often converted to Islam, but didn’t completely separate from their own cultural and religious traditions
Southeastern AFrica, Zimbabwe prospered from participating in trade with east AFrica’s city-states
In 11th century, inhabitants created Great Zimbabwe, city of stone towers, palaces, and public buildings, Zimbabwe prospered between 1300 and 1450

Question 15

Hausa Kingdoms

Answer 15

Collection of states home to the Hausa people
Located in the northern region of present day Nigeria
Of these kingdoms, city-state of Kano rose to greatest prominence for its role in trans-Saharan trade
Various kingdoms exported gold, salt, nuts, and slaves
Muslim clerics and traders filtered into kingdoms from neighboring Mali, with Kano becoming beacon of Islamic scholarship

Question 16

Global Trade

Answer 16

Volume of long-distance trade dramatically increased between 1200 -1450
Luxury items of high value, such as silk and precious stone were typically transported over land routes
Merchants used sea routes to transport bulkier commodities such as steel stone, coral and building materials
Silk Road trade linked Eurasian landmass
Trans-Saharan trade connected West Africa to the Mediterranean and Islamic Empires
Indian Ocean trade linked China, Southeast Asia, India, Arabia, and East Africa
Mediterranean Sea trade linked Europe with goods from the Islamic Empire and Asia
Because of this global exchange, and because of increased agricultural productivity and slightly warmer global temperatures between 800-1300, cities located along trade routes grew substantially
For instance Melaka, a city on the coast of the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia, served as an important port city on the Indian Ocean
It became Sultanate of melaka, Islamic state, as Muslim traders settled into the region and spread Islam in the early fifteenth century
Melaka maintained a safe environment for trade, welcomed merchants, and charged reasonable fees
As a result, thrived in interconnected world, along with cities like Hangzhou in China, Samarkand in Central Asia, Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, Kilwa in East Africa, Venice in Italy, and Timbuktu in Mali, Africa
Although cities generally increased in size between 1200-1450, military invasions, diseases, and reduced agricultural productivity caused some cities to experience periods of significant economic decline
Merchants set up their own communities, where they often influenced the dominant culture along trade routes
Muslim merchants in the Indian Ocean region, Chinese merchants in Southeast Asia, Jewish merchants in mediterranean settled in diaspora communities in trade cities
Increase in global interaction led to spread of agriculture and technology and great changes throughout the world

Question 17

Examples of Cultural diffusion from cross cultural interactions

Answer 17

Magnetic compass
From China
Diffused to Europe via Indian Ocean trade
Caused increase in maritime trade and exploration

Sugarcane
From Southwest Asia
Diffused to European Crusaders
Caused increase in Mediterranean island plantations and increase in slave labor

Gunpowder
From China
Diffused to Persia, the Middle East, and eventually Europe by the Mongols
Caused advances in weapon technology

Question 18

Spread of Disease

Answer 18

In addition to religions, technologies, and goods, diseases spread along rade routes
Carried by infected rodents and fleas, bubonic plague (also called Black Death) spread from the Yunnan region of southwest China
In 1340s, Mongols, merchants, and travelers spread the disease even farther along the trade routes west of China
Oasis towns, trading cities of Central Asia, Black Sea ports, the Mediterranean Sea, and Western Europe were all affected
Some scholars estimate as many as 100 million people, out of world population of 450 million, died
⅓ of Europe’s population died in the first five years of the plague
Seemingly apocalyptic event led to many social changes
In Western Europe, resulting labor shortage led to workers demanding higher wages
PEasants rebelled, weakening the feudal system
Antisemitism led to Jews being scapegoats for the plague, many Jewish communities were massacred
Christians questioned their faith amid all of the death and seemingly senseless destruction
Self-flagellation became popular, way for people to atone for their apparent sins
Roman Catholic Church lost much of its seasoned clergy to the plague, and their replacements often lacked proper education and literacy as standards were lowered by necessity

Question 19

Travelers (examples of long distance interaction)

Answer 19

Ibn Battuta (1304-1369)
Background - Muslim scholar from Morocco
Places traveled - Throughout Dar al-Islam: West Africa, India, Southeast Asia
Significance - found government positions as a qadi, or judge, throughout the lands he traveled, demonstrated the widespread influence of Islam and increased European interest in Eastern goods

Marco Polo
Background - Italian merchant from Venice
Places traveled - Throughout the Silk Road to the Mongol Empire in China
Significance - Allowed by Kublai Khan to pursue mercantile and domestic missions throughout the empire increased European interest in goods from the East

Rabban Sauma
Background - Nestorian Christian priest from Mongol Empire in China
Places traveled - began pilgrimage to Jerusalem in Beijing, but diverted when sent by Mongol Ilkhan of Persia to meet with kings of France and England and the pope to negotiate alliances against Muslims
Significance - did not succeed in attracting the support of Christian Europe to the Mongol cause, Europeans never conquered the Middle East, but instead went around it to reach the Indian Ocean

Question 20

Missionaries: Buddhism

Answer 20

Along Silk Road, Buddhism traveled to CEntral Asia and adapted into variants, which included polytheism
In Tibet, it became popular as it combined shamanism and importance of rituals
In East Asia, monks, merchants, and missionaries adapted Buddhism to the political ideas of Confucianism, but including Daoist ideas, an emphasis on family, and ancestor worship
Particularly during chaotic time, Buddhism appealed to people as an avenue toward personal enlightenment
Chinese Buddhism spread to Korea, where it received royal support, and to Japan
In Japan, Shinto leaders initially resisted Buddhism
Eventually, syncretism (the fusion of differing systems of beliefs) occurred after Buddhism blended into the worship of Shinto divinities
Because Buddhism lacked an organized Church, could merge with local people’s ideas
However, Buddhism was often replaced by more organized religions
In Central Asia, for instance, Islam eventually replaced Buddhism as the dominant religion
In China, Tang Dynasty stopped supporting Buddhism in the 9th century

Question 21

Missionaries: Christianity

Answer 21

Like Buddhism, Christianity emerged as missionary religion
When Western Roman Empire was declining, missionary efforts turned toward Northern Europe
The Western Church and pope sponsored missionary campaigns aimed at converting Germanic people
Eastern Orthodox Church also spread Christianity to Eastern Europe and Russia
Syncretism aided the spread of Christianity
Pagan heroes or holy figures, such as the saints, seen as mediators between God and his people
Polytheistic holidays were incorporated into Christianity, and Christians placed Christmas on same day as pagan winter solstice celebration
In Asia , Nestorian Christianity – the belief that Jesus existed as two distinct entities, mortal man and divine figure – spread to Mesopotamia and Persia, where Islamic conquerors allowed Christians to practice their religion
Merchants also spread Nestorian Christianity as far as India and China, but received little or no support from local rulers

Question 22

Missionaries: Islam

Answer 22

Islam spread through three main avenues: military conquest, trade, and missionary activity
Once Islam was introduced through one of those avenues, the religion spread because of its tolerance for other beliefs, its simple principles, and its emphasis on charity and spiritual equality
Also, Muslim rulers often levied a special tax against non-Muslims, which provided economic incentive for conversion
In sub-Saharan Africa, merchants introduced Islam to the ruling class through trade, and syncretism occurred
Kings still held divine position, women continued to have a prominent place in society, as was local custom
In East AFrica, Islam arrived vai Indian Ocean, where it mixed with Arabic and AFrican languages to create Swahili
In India, Turks brought Islam to region in 11th century when they formed Delhi Sultanate and used Hindu stories with Muslim characters, attracting both warriors and low-caste Hindus
Sufis were most active missionaries after 900, spreading Islam to Southern Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, Central Asia, INdia, and Southeast Asia

Question 23

Chinese Developments

Answer 23

In 1368, Mongol Yuan Dynasty collapsed and Emperor Hongwu started the Ming Dynasty
Hongwu reinstated the Confucian education system and civil service exam and tightened central authority
Ming relied on mandarins, class of powerful officials, to implement their policies on local level
Also conscripted laborers to rebuild their irrigation systems; as a result , agricultural production increased
Though Ming did not actively promote trade, private merchants traded manufactured porcelain, silk, and cotton
Where Yuan Dynasty had imposed high taxes to support Mongol military efforts, the Ming favored a policy of minimal taxation
This approach facilitated trade, but left the Ming state vulnerable to economic disruptions
In 17th century, Ming finally faced troop defections and rebellions over state’s inability to pay its own soldiers
Ming Dynasty strongly promoted Chinese cultural traditions and established Neo-Confucian schools which stressed Confucian values such as self-discipline, filial piety, and obedience to rulers
Ming Dynasty saw three of the “Four Great Classical Novels” of Chinese literature published:
The Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, and Journey to the West
Perhaps most widely read novel in both late imperial and modern China, culturally influential throughout East Asia, Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Jesuit missionaries such as Matteo Ricci arrived in China, introducing European science and technology
While Jesuit goal of converting Chinese population to Catholicism proved unsuccessful, , Ricci’s syncretic approach, accepting ancestor veneration while also using Confucian values to “translate” Christian doctrine, demonstrates how religious belief systems adapt to spread between regions

Question 24

European Developments

Answer 24

By 1400s, regional states in Europe were developing into monarchies
Monarchies were strong enough to tax citizens directly maintain large standing armies
Milan, Venice, Florence, and other parts of modern-day Italy benefited greatly from increased trade, which increased tax revenue and their governments authority
This wealth facilitated much of accomplishments of Renaissance period of artistic and scientific self-discovery
Kings in France and England began to successfully assert their authority over feudal lords
Spain, Fernando of Aragon and Isabella of Castile married and untied Spain by reconquering lands formerly controlled by Muslims
Competition among these states led to refinement and improvement in weapons, ships, and technology, which prepared these regional states for future expansion