12 - problem solving and creativity Flashcards
what is a problem in the psychological sense
a situation involving a goal and an obstacle such that the obstacle does nt have a clear solution
what are the two factors in Gestalt problem solving
- a mental representation of the problem
2. how solving the problem involves reorganizing this mental representation
what is restructuring
the Gestalt idea that we solve problems by representing them in our minds
- ie, take it into pieces, or sumn
what is insight
any sudden comprehension, realization or problem solution that involves a restructuring of a person’s representation of a stimulus, situation or event to yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious
explain Metcalfe and Wiebe’s study on insight vs non-insight problems
- proposed that those engaged in insight based problems will be bad at predicting how close they are to completion
- gave participants iSight problems and non-insight problems and asked them to give ‘warmth’ ratings ab how far they are from completion
- insight issues vs analytically based problems - wrote maths/logics
- ranked warmth in the minute before solution
- insight problems were deemed colder until right before the end, then jumped right up
are insight and non-insight/ analytical problems always different as suggested by Metalcfe and Wibe
not necessrily
- Fleck and Wiesber - presented evidence that solving insight pboelms can involve analytical processes
what is fixation
the tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of a problem that keeps one from arriving at a solution
what is functional fixedness
focussing on familiar functions or uses of an object during problem solving
explain the candle problem
an example of functional fixedness
- asked participants to use various objects to complete a task
- asked to solve a task where we would need to use a matchbox to prevent candle wax from falling to the floor - ppl get caught up bc that’s not what the box is ‘for’
- two conditions
1. box came full with matches
2. box empty, matches out - those presented with empty boxes did way better
explain the two string problem
two strings on the ceiling that were too far apart to reach, had to tie them together
- pliers in the room
- need to attach the pliers to one string to create a pendulum so you can reach both strings
- example of functional fixedness
- then experimenter came in and ‘brushed’ against the string causing it to start to swing
- most ppl then got it
what is a mental set and how does it relate to functional fixedness
mental set - a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem
- functional fixedness is just an example of a preconceived notion about the function of a tool
explain the water jug problem and what it tells us about mental sets
- gave ppl three jugs and a formula for how to use the jugs to get the desired ammt of water
- then gave them a bunch of problems where they could sue this formula
- lasst two could be solved that way, but there are also far more simple solutions
- ran two groups
1. mental set group - they did the procedure normally ]
2. non mental set - didn’t learn the procedure earlier - 3/4 of condition 1 used the complex formula, while all of condition 2 used the simple on
- creating a mental set during a task can then inhibit future tasks that are similar in their procedure
how has the gestalt approach to problem solving influenced modern information processing approaches
- its all about mental representations
what is the information processing approach’s notion of problem solving
a task taht requires search p instead of just considering the initial structure of a problem, and the structure achieved when it is solved, we see it as a search that occurs between the problem being posed and its solution
what are the three aspects of Newell and Simon’s approach to problems
- initial state - conditions at the start of a prpoblem
- goal state
- operators - actions that take problems from one state to another state
- intermediate states between the initial and goal
- problem space; the set {initial state, all intermediates (possible) and goal state)
do people have a representation of the entire problem space while solving problems?
no, we can search through it though while we solve problems
how does one direct their search through the problem space
through a means-end analysis
- aims to reduce the difference between initial and goal Staes
how is means-end analysis accomplished
by creating subgoals, which are intermediate states closer to the goal than the initial state
what are two of the main contributions of Newell and Simon’s approach
- provided a way to determine the possible paths from initial to goal states
- demonstrated subgoal usage
are problems with identical problem spaces always the same complexity? why or why not
no, depends on how they are stated
- mutilated checkerboard for example
- can be clearly seen to be impossible if you are given information in light of that, otherwise its hard
- proved with the mutilated checkerboard - the way the board is laid out gives information towards its solution
- think checkerboard problem vs bachelor problem - same idea but obvious in the latter case
explain the think allowed protocol and how it was relevant tot he mutilated checkerboard problem
- think aloud as you solve problem
- allowed researchers to see what was going on while ppl solved the problem
what is analogical transfer
the process of noticing similarities between problems and applying the solution to one problem to the second
- specifically, from a source problem to a target problem
try to remember the radiation problem (bombard from different angles to eliminate the tumour while preserving the healthy tissue) and the fortress story for this
- did participants improve after reading the fortress problem then moving to the harder radiation one?
- why doo we think this is?
yes, 30% solvedrelativee to 10
- but still to 100%, even when exposed to analogous problems most ppl won’t draw the connection
- but when they told ppl to think about the story they read, 70% got it right
- information was there, but not retrieved until deliberately considered
what are the three steps in Gick and Holyoak’s model of analogical reasoning
- noticing - that there is an analogous relationship between the target and source problems
- hardest part of the three steps
- can be made easier or harder depending on the degree of clarity of analogy - mapping - the correspondence between the two problems
- applying - the mapping to generate a parallel solution
what is analogical encoding
the process by which 2 problems are compared, determining their similarities
explain Gentner and Goldin-Meadow’s study on analogical encoding
involved a negotiation problem
- given two strategies
1. trade-off; ill give you A if u give me B
2. contingency; a person gets what they want only if some other condition is satisfied (I want X, but I can only get X from you if y) - taught ppl both strategies, then had them consider two cases (2 groups) where each group was tied to one strategy
- then presented a problem that could be solved by either method
- ppl used the method they had considered more in the 2 previous cases
- conclusions; having ppl compare source stories is a good way to achieve analogical encoding, forces ppl to attend to the problem features that enhance their ability to solve other issues
what is the analogical paradox
the fact that it is hard to apply analogies in labs but easy n the real world
what is in vivo problem solving research
- advantage and disadvantage
observing ppl solving problems in the real world
- captures naturalistic thinking
- dis; time consuming, hard to control variables
explain Dunbar’s in vivo problem solving findings (lab meetings)
explain Chase and Simon’s findings on expert vs novices knowledge (chess)
- expert chess players are way better at remembering a chess board layout only if it mimics real game permutations
- store patterns that occur in games in LTM which can facilitate the chunking of a board that looks real
- but when randomly designed the chunking can’t occur, so its the same
- NOT a memory thing necessarily
how is an experts knowledge organized differently than a novices’
- Chi et al, presented physics problems to physics students w one course and physics profs
- asked them to group the problems based on their similarities
- novices sorted by how similar the objects in the problem were
- experts sorted by general physical principles
- in general
- novices; sort by superficial appearance, experts; by underlying principles
does expert organization produce better problem solving
yes, expert ability to organize knowledge has been found to be important in a lot of fields
do experts or novices spend longer thinking about problems before attempting solutions
experts do, they try to understand the problem before solving it
- pays off long term
does expertise generalize to other fields
NO
is expertise always a good thing
not necessarily
- harder to break paradigm once indoctrinated (Kuhn) - reason why young scientists are usually the ones wh make huge discoveries
- expertise might inhibit flexible thinking (where problems require solutions that aren’t the same as the normal ones)
what is divergent thinking
thinking that is open ended, involves a large number of possible solutions
how does divergent thinking relate to creativity
necessary but not sufficient
- Kaufman; creative solutions must be original and USEFUL
what is creativity
anything made by people that is in some way novel and has potential value or utility
- good for creating tools, nt good for describing creative art or sum n
is creativity an act or a process
process; need the ‘;insight’ but also the mapping and all that, takes time
- models with steps emerge from this; generate ideas and then evaluate the idea being the most important two
does creativity rely on knowledge
yes, good ideas can’t be applied unless you have the knowledge necc. to do so
what is relevant in generating ideas
- knowledge about the problem and shit
is knowledge always useful to idea generation
- explain Smith;s study that shows this
- what concept does this relate to from earlier?
no, sometimes inhibtory
- providing people w examples before creative design results in them incorporating a lot of features of the example
- related to functional fixedness
-
what is group brainstorming
generating ideas to solve a problem in group w the idea being to just say whatever you think
- results in less Ideas tan just doing this in isolation
- can be bc some ppl dominate the discussion
- also bc some ppl are scared to express
- may also be paying attention to others in the group decreasing th attention available to creativity
what is creative cognition
the process of combining some elements of randomly selected objects into an new object w the intent to create something novel, then applying a category and use to it after its completed
- called preventive forms
what are preventive forms
ideas that precede the creation of a finished creative product
what is the relevance of Finke’sfindings on creative cognition
- many of the processes involved in creative cognition are similar to those in other areas
- example; ppl are more likely to come up with creative purposes for preinventive forms they created themselves
- similar to generation method in memory
explain Chi and Snyder’s study on the Anterior temporal lobe and thinking without the constraints of perceive individual items as grouped together (ie, solving the nine dot problem)
used transcranial direct current stimulation to deactivate the left ATL// increase the right ATL
- then had their participants solve the nine-dot problem
- same % of participants in this condition could solve it as when they were told explicitly to draw outside the square
what is transcranial direct current stimulation
procedure for stimulating the brain
- two electrodes placed o the head
- on eis a cathode; negative charged, decreased the xcitability of the attached brain region
- other is an anode, positive charge, increased excitability
explain Kounios’ study on the brain correlates of analogical// insight-based reasoning
- took an EEG in seconds leading up to task presentation in a compound remote associate problem (Crab, Pine, sauce = crabapple, pinapple, apple sauce)
- then indicated whether they were using analogical or insight reasoning
- analogical reasoning had a spike in the occipital lobe before presentation of the problem
- insight based reasoning had a spike in the frontal lobe
- since it was before, concluded that brain states before problem solving influence how we end up solving the problem
explain the relationship between mind-wandering and creativity through Baird’s study
- based on the observation of incubation (failure to solve a problem, then time off, can result in insight)
- used an alternate use task (participants had 2 minutes to think of unusual uses for common objects)
- followed by incubation period where they were asked to perform either a hard task (no mind wandering) or an easy one (mind wandering
- non- mindwanndering; no change when asked to reperform the alternate use task
- mind wandering - huge improvements
- concluded mind wandering is essential for creativity
is there a direct connection between DMN activity and creativity/
yes, Mayseless et al - used an alternate use task and rated how ‘creative’ the new uses were
- higher DMN activity in the higher originality ratings
Explain Ellamil’s study on the executive control network and creativity
asked participants to create book covers in 2 stages
1. read a description then come up with ideas (generate)
2. take a break, then evaluate the ideas they came up w
- DMN and ECN were more active during evaluation
DMN and ECN interact during creative evaluation
- functional connectivity measurements showed high connectivity during both the statges
does the functional connectivity between the DMN and ECN relate to individual creative capacity
yes, higher f.c results in more creativity
why is the idea that the ECn and DMN are related in creativity so strange
they are typically antithetical - one activates while the other deactivates
how do we explain the relevance of the ECN and DMN interaction in light of their opposite functionality?
DMN allows for creative thinking, ECN directs the flow to relevant or novel ideas
what is volitional daydreaming
actively stepping away from environmental stimuli to allow ur mind to wander for creative purposes
how is solitude relevant for creativity
‘gives the mind the space to reflect, make new connections and find meaning’
explain the difference between focused attention meditation and open monitoring meditation
- focussed attention - focus on one stimuli and draw ur mind back any time it starts to wander ; increases mindfulness but decreases mind wandering (and hence the creative effects that it provides)
- open monitoring - just pay attention to whatever comes to mind and follow this thought until something else comes along; doesn’t decrease mind wandering
explain the findings of Colzato et al on FA vs OM mindfulness meditation and creativity
- list the three cond. in the study
three conditions 1. FA med before alteratre use task 2. OM same deal 3. just visualize random shit 1 and 2 did better than 3 but 2 did far better than 1
explain the findings of Xu et al on OM and FA meditation and brain activity
Om mediation caused greater DMN activation than FA
what is another term for the DMN
the imagination network
