12

Question 1

Thought

Answer 1

Thought is an extension of perception and memory:
- we form mental representations
- we retrieve representations from semantic
memory
- we mentally manipulate the representations to achieve some purpose
Thinking involves manipulating mental representations (images or words or concepts) for a purpose

Question 2

Mental Models

Answer 2

Mental models involve a representation that describes, explains, or predicts how things work

• Our model of the synapse
• Our understanding of how cars work
• Atkinson & Shiffrin’s model of memory

Question 3

Categories

Answer 3

• a class of similar entities that share an essential core or some similarity in properties
• something that exists in the real world
• eg a chair does not fall into the computer category

Question 4

Concept

Answer 4

a mental representation of a category.

• cat: small, furry, four-legged, eats mice …
• bird: small, feathered, can fly …

Question 5

Processes of categorisation

Answer 5

Categorisation involves recognising an object as a member of a category
1. comparison with defining features
- characteristics that are essential for membership of the category
2. similarity/dissimilarity to prototypes
- an idealized abstraction across many instances of a
category, an “average” of previous experiences

Question 6

Levels of categorisation

Answer 6

• Basic
• Subordinate
• Superordinate

Question 7

Basic categorisation

Answer 7

• most ‘natural’ level, quickest response

- e.g., bird

Question 8

Subordinate categorisation

Answer 8

• more specific than basic

- e.g., magpie

Question 9

Superordinate categorisation

Answer 9

• more abstract than basic
• members share few specific features
• e.g., living thing, animal
• level of metaphor

Question 10

Reasoning

Answer 10

the process of thinking in which conclusions are drawn from given information

• inductive
• deductive

Question 11

Deductive reasoning

Answer 11

One draws a conclusion that is intended to follow logically from two or more statements (premises)

Specific premises are given, for example:
- The dog always barks when there is someone at
the door, and the dog didn’t bark
Does the premise allow a particular conclusion to be drawn
- So there is no one at the door

requires us to focus on structure (form), not content

Question 12

Inductive reasoning

Answer 12

A conclusion is made about the probability of some state of affairs, based on the available evidence and past experience
- Brian is a university student.
- Brian studies a lot.
- Therefore all university students study a lot.
Generalising from a specific instance to an entire category
Everyday thinking often involves inductive processes

Question 13

Deductive V Inductive reasoning

Answer 13

Deductive: general => specific 
 - All dogs bark
 - Fido is a dog 
 - Therefore Fido barks
Inductive: specific => general 
 - Felix is a cat
 - Felix purrs
 - Therefore all cats purr

Question 14

Belief bias

Answer 14

Deductive reasoning gone wrong
Conclusions that concur with real-world knowledge are judged to be valid
- If my finger is cut, then it bleeds.
- My finger is bleeding.
- Therefore, my finger is cut.
Logical structure of premises is overlooked
Relying on real world knowledge is less effortful than formal reasoning

Question 15

Analogical reasoning

Answer 15

• process by which people understand a novel situation in terms of a familiar one.
• novel and familiar situations must each contain a number of elements that can be mapped onto each other.
• use analogies to categorise novel situations, make inferences, solve problems

Question 16

Benefits of analogous reasoning

Answer 16

We can use analogous reasoning to make conclusions about things we have not actually seen or experienced first hand
• Called Transitive Inference
 - Tom is happier than Bill 
 - Bill is happier than Mike 
 - Who is happiest?

Question 17

Problem solving

Answer 17

refers to the process by which we transform one situation into another to meet a goal.

• initial
• goal
• set of operations

Question 18

Well defined problems - Simon 1973

Answer 18

• have clearly defined initial and goal states
• constraints are clearly specified
• no ambiguity regarding what represents a solution

Question 19

Problem Clarity

Answer 19

• Well-defined problems are ones where the initial state, goal state, and operators are easily determined (e.g., stats problems).
• Ill-defined problems occur when both the information needed to solve the problem and the criteria for determining when the goal state has been met are vague (e.g., leader tasked with ‘improving morale’).

Question 20

Algorithms

Answer 20

• Step-by-step procedures that always find a solution, sooner or later
• More likely to exist for well-defined problems
• e.g., rules of algebra

Question 21

Mental Stimulation

Answer 21

imagining the steps involved in problems solving before undertaking them

Question 22

Means End Analysis

Answer 22

• involves identifying the principal differences between initial & goal state, then taking actions to reduce those differences
• often involves forming subgoals
• intermediate steps to solution
• dividing problem into subgoals facilitates
  solution
• Example: Tower of Hanoi

Question 23

Functional fixedness

Answer 23

A barrier to problem solving

- the tendency to fix on a function for an object and to ignore other possible uses.

Question 24

Dunckers Candle Problem 1945

Answer 24

3 objects on table
- candle, box of matches, box of thumbtacks
Task
- find a way to attach the candle to the wall in
such a way that the candle burns correctly, using only the objects on the table
Solution
- empty matchbox can be used as a candle
holder
*Involves overcoming functional fixedness

Question 25

Confirmation bias

Answer 25

A barrier to problems solving

- the tendency to search for confirmation of what we already believe.

Question 26

Mental set

Answer 26

A barrier to problem solving

- the tendency to keep using the same problem solving techniques that have been successful in the past.

Question 27

Improving problem solving

Answer 27

• switch to a different (more appropriate) representation
• avoid functional fixedness
• change your mental set
• check for unnecessary constraints
• avoid confirmation bias by looking for disconfirming evidence

Question 28

Decision making

Answer 28

The process by which an individual weighs the pros and cons of different alternatives in order to make a choice
- Usually weighing the likelihood of things occurring and the value to you individually of those

Question 29

Heuristics

Answer 29

Cognitive shortcuts (rules of thumb) for selecting amongst alternatives, without carefully considering each one (sometimes irrational)

Question 30

Decision Making Heuristics

Answer 30

• rules of thumbs or guiding principles used to make decisions
• often yield a correct solution
• can sometimes yield incorrect solutions
• Advantages: simplicity, speed
• Disadvantages: not always correct

Question 31

Availability Heuristic

Answer 31

• the estimated probability of an event is based on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind
  *easier to think of words beginning with a particular letter
  than to think of a word with the letter in 3rd position
• In general people overestimate the likelihood of
  dramatic events which receive much attention in the media and elsewhere (e.g., air crashes, tornadoes, floods, homicide) because instances are more available in memory

Question 32

Representative Heuristic

Answer 32

• The estimated probability of an event is based on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event
• Based on a subjective computation of person or event’s similarity to a prototype
• Prototype: most typical instance of a category
• if deviation from p/type small, the odds are good

Question 33

Bounded Rationality

Answer 33

• People are rational within the bounds imposed by their environment, goals and cognitive resources
• We do not always have complete information
   our time is often limited
• We make good enough judgments, rather than optimal (Simon, 1956)