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D1 Fall - Histology > 12/4: Thyroid, Parathyroid Pancreas, & Adrenal Glands > Flashcards

12/4: Thyroid, Parathyroid Pancreas, & Adrenal Glands Flashcards

1
Q

Where is the thyroid gland found?

A

Anterior to tracheal rings 2-3

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2
Q

What are the right and left lobes separated by?

A

An isthmus

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3
Q

What does each thyroid lobe consist of?

A

Follicles (structural and functional unit) filled with colloid

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4
Q

Describe the epithelium of the thyroid follicle

A

Single layer
Cuboidal to columnar

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5
Q

What does the thyroid follicle surround?

A

Central lumen of colloid

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6
Q

What is the thyroids product?

A

Thyroglobulin

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7
Q

Where is thyroglobulin stored?

A

Central follicular lumen

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8
Q

What does the follicular epithelium have?

A

Receptors for thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)

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9
Q

Where does TSH come from?

A

Anterior pituitary

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10
Q

What does the thyroid control?

A

both synthesis (exocrine)
& secretion (endocrine) of
thyroid hormones

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11
Q

What is the process of synthesis in the exocrine portion?

A
  1. Uptake of amino acids
    & iodide into the cell.
  2. Thyroglobulin (TGB)
    synthesized on RER
  3. Addition of iodine to
    tyrosine residues of
    TGB, released into the
    lumen by exocytosis
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12
Q

How are the thyroid hormones stored?

A

Extracellularly as thyroglobulin

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13
Q

What is the thyroid inhibited by?

A

Anti-thyroid drugs

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14
Q

What is a result of TSH stimulus?

A

Endocytosis and digestion of colloid

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15
Q

What do colloid droplets fuse with?

A

Lysosomes

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16
Q

What do digestive enzymes breakdown?

A

TGB, releasing T3, T4, and iodine

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17
Q

What is T4 secreted by?

A

Thyroid

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18
Q

Is the T3 or T4 more potent?

A

T3

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19
Q

How to T3 and T4 diffuse?

A

Through membrane into capillary

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20
Q

What is capillary transport facilitated by?

A

Thyroxine-binding protein

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21
Q

What does the thyroid hormone stimulate?

A

Basic metabolic rate

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22
Q

What does the thyroid hormone augment?

A
  1. Thermogenesis
  2. Glucose production
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23
Q

What is the thyroid hormone required for?

A

Normal development of CNS

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24
Q

Where are parafollicular or ‘c’ cells found?

A

In isolated clusters between follicles or within the follicular epithelium

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25
Q

What do parafollicular or ‘c’ cells produce?

A

Calcitonin

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26
Q

What does calcitonin do?

A

Decrease calcium concentration by increasing osteoblast activity and decreasing bone resorption (osteoclasts)
Calci- tone in (calcium)
Calci - bone in (osteoblasts)

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27
Q

What does calcitonin bind to?

A

Receptor on osteoclast

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28
Q

What is hypercalcemia?

A

Blood levels of Ca2+ stimulates calcitonin secretion

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29
Q

What is hyperthyroidism?

A

Excessive production of TSH

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30
Q

What are symptoms of hyperthyroidism?

A

increased metabolic rate,
weight loss, hyperactivity and heat intolerance

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31
Q

What are common causes of hyperthyroidism?

A
  • Excessive stimulation by adenohypophysis
  • Loss of feedback control by thyroid gland (Graves’
    disease)
  • Ingestion of T4 (used for weight loss)
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32
Q

What is Grave’s disease caused by?

A

Autoimmune disorder that produces antibodies to the receptors for TSH on the follicular epithelium. Antibodies bind to the
receptor and chronically stimulate it. The result is too much circulating thyroid hormone.

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33
Q

What are standard symptoms of grave’s disease?

A

Standard symptoms plus exopthalamos (collagen deposition
posterior to eyeball the TSH-R is also found in orbital fat)

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34
Q

What is treatment for grave’s disease?

A

Surgical removal, radioactive iodine

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35
Q

What is the post treatment regimen for grave’s disease?

A

Supplementation of thyroid hormones

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36
Q

What is hypothyroidism caused by?

A

Insufficient production of thyroid hormone

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37
Q

What are symptoms for hypothyroidism?

A

low metabolic rate, feeling of being cold, weight gain (some patients) and
photophobia (TAED- thyroid associated eye
disease)

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38
Q

What are causes of hypothyroidism?

A

decreased iodine intake, loss of pituitary stimulation, post-therapeutic or destruction of the thyroid by the immune system

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39
Q

What’s treatment for hypothyroidism?

A

Oral thyroid medication

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40
Q

What is endemic goiter caused by?

A

Iodine deficiency

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41
Q

What does the pituitary gland do in relation to PSH in a patient who has goiter?

A

Releases more TSH but the gland cannot respond

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42
Q

How can goiter be avoided?

A

By adding iodine to the diet
- iodine salt

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43
Q

What is the treatment for goiter?

A

Surgery

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44
Q

What are the two types of secretory cells that the parathyroid secretes?

A

Chief cells
Oxyphil cells

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45
Q

What do chief cells secrete?

A

Parathyroid hormone

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46
Q

Fatty infiltration of the parathyroid gland is more common in?

A

Older individuals

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47
Q

What is the function of oxyphil cells?

A

Unknown; ?inactive chief cells

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48
Q

What is the parathyroid hormone secreted by in response to?

A

Chief cells; low blood Ca level

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49
Q

What does the parathyroid hormone regulate?

A

Calcium and phosphate balance by increasing blood Ca level/decreasing phosphate levels

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50
Q

What does the PTH act on and promote?

A

Osteoblasts to promote osteoclasts -> increase in circulating calcium levels

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51
Q

What does the parathyroid hormone act on?

A

Renal tubules to stimulate resorption of calcium

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52
Q

What does the PTH control rate of?

A

Ca uptake in GI tract by regulating production of Vitamin D (kidneys)

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53
Q

What does vitamin D sitmulate?

A

Cells of intestinal mucosa to absorb Ca and synthesize calbindin (carrier protein)

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54
Q

What is PTH activity balanced by?

A

Calcitonin

55
Q

What does the PTH stimulate resorption of?

A

Mineralized bone by osteoclasts, release of Ca into the blood

56
Q

What does calcitonin promote?

A

Osteogenesis

57
Q

What does calcitonin act on?

A

Osteoclasts to inhibit bone resorption/ Ca release

58
Q

What is hypoparathyroidism a deficiency in?

A

Secretion of PTH

59
Q

What are the blood and bone calcium levels in hypoparathyroidism?

A

Blood calcium is low, bone calcium is not released

60
Q

What does a Ca deficiency result in?

A

spontaneous depolarization of neurons & muscle fibers resulting in tetany

61
Q

What are the blood calcium levels in hyperparathyroidism?

A

High (hypercalcemia)

62
Q

What does hyperparathyrodiism result in?

A

Bone loss- can result in osteomalacia

63
Q

What does hyperparathyroidism cause?

A

Abnormal calcium deposition in arteries and kidneys

64
Q

Where are centroacinar cells found?

A

Lumen of pancreatic acini

65
Q

What are the cells of intercalated ducts?

A

Centroacinar cells

66
Q

Where are islets of langerhans embedded within?

A

Exocrine tissue

67
Q

Islets of langerhans are a part of what portal system?

A

Insuloacinar portal system

68
Q

Describe the flow from arterioles to capillaries

A

Afferent arteriole -> fenestrated capillaries -> efferent capillaries

69
Q

What do efferent capillaries (venules) supply?

A

Exocrine pancreatic acini

70
Q

What do efferent capillaries allow direct action of?

A

Hormones on exocrine portion

71
Q

What are the 3 main cell types of islet cells?

A

Alpha, beta, and gamma

72
Q

What do alpha cells secrete?

73
Q

What do alpha cells do?

A

↑ blood glucose, stimulates glucogenesis & glycogenolysis

74
Q

What do beta cells secrete?

75
Q

What do beta cells do?

A

↓ blood glucose & stimulates intracellular glycogen synthesis

76
Q

What do gamma cells secrete?

A

Somatostatin

77
Q

What do gamma cells do?

A

inhibits both insulin &
glucagon production

78
Q

What do miscellaneous cell types secrete?

A

vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) & pancreatic polypeptide (PP)

79
Q

What deficiency causes diabetes mellitus?

A

insulin deficiency/abnormality

80
Q

What is diabetes mellitus characterized by?

A

hyperglycemia (↑ blood
glucose) & glucosuria (glucose in urine)

81
Q

What is considered juvenille diabetes?

A

Type I (Decrease insulin production)

82
Q

What is considered adult osnset diabetes?

A

Type II (↓ # of insulin receptors or ↓ responsiveness)

83
Q

What is the adrenal gland also known as?

A

Suprarenal gland

84
Q

Where is the adrenal gland located?

A

Superior to kidneys

85
Q

What are adrenal glands covered by?

A

Thin connective tissue capsule

86
Q

Describe the endocrine gland in mammals

A

Single, endocrine gland with two different embryological origin

87
Q

What is the adrenal gland regulated by?

A

ACTH secreted by anterior pituitary

88
Q

What are steroid hormones structurally related to?

A

Cholesterol precursor

89
Q

What are the three functional classes of adrenal hormones?

A

Mineralcorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Sex hormones

90
Q

What are examples of mineralcorticoids

A

Aldosterone (RAAS pathway)

91
Q

What do mineralcorticoids do?

A

Control electrolyte and fluid balance

92
Q

What do mineralcorticoids regulate?

A
  • Na & K levels via Na pumps, especially in renal
    tubules
  • blood pressure via JGA
93
Q

What are examples of glucocorticoids?

94
Q

What do glucocorticoids stimulate?

A
  • gluconeogenesis & glycogenolysis—both ↑
    blood glucose
  • ↑ metabolism & breakdown of proteins,
    carbohydrates, & lipids
95
Q

What are examples of sex hormones?

96
Q

What do sex hormones do?

A

Stimulate gonadal production (small amount of them)

97
Q

What are the three layers (from superficial to deep) of the adrenal cortex?

A

Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis

98
Q

What does the zona glomerulosa secrete?

A

Secretes mineralocorticoids, e.g.,
aldosterone

99
Q

What does the zona fasciculata secrete?

A

Secrete glucocorticoids; e.g., cortisol
Stress promotes secretion of cortisol,
which ↓ immune response
Small amounts of androgens also
secreted

100
Q

What cells does the zona fasciculata contain?

A

Spongiocytes

101
Q

What does the zona reticularis secrete?

A

small quantities of androgens & glucocorticoids

102
Q

Where does medulla have direct blood supply and sinusoids from?

A

Cortex (long cortical aa)

103
Q

What are mineralocorticoids produced in response to?

A

Angiotensin II (also ACTH)

104
Q

What is the zona glomerulosa involved in?

A

electrolyte (Na+ and K+) and water balance

105
Q

What does the zona fasiculata regulate?

A

CHO, protein and fat metabolism

106
Q

What does the liver do?

A

promote uptake/use of fatty acids, amino acids & CHO

107
Q

What kind of effect do other tissues have?

A

Catabolic effect

108
Q

What can the zona fasiculata do to the immune system?

A

Decrease number of circulating lymphocytes

109
Q

How are the cells arranged in the zona reticularis?

A

Irregular cords that form an anastomosing network

110
Q

What is it called if you have hypoadrenocorticism?

A

Addison’s disease

111
Q

What is addison’s disease?

A

Failure of adrenal cortex to produce hormone (mineralo- and glucocorticoids)

112
Q

What is addison’s disease due to?

A

Atrophy of gland (often caused by autoimmune disease)

113
Q

What does a decrease in aldosterone cause?

A

↓ ECF volume,
hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, mild acidosis
=> shock, death
(aka Addisonian crisis)

114
Q

What does a decrease in cortisol cause?

A

↓ blood glucose

115
Q

What is treatment for addison’s disease?

A

exogenous administration of mineralocorticoids & glucocorticoids
(Fludrocortisone & cortisol)

116
Q

What is an example of hyperadrenocorticism?

A

Cushing’s disease

117
Q

What is primary hyperadrenocorticism?

A

adrenal hyperadrenocorticism

118
Q

What is adrenal hyperadrenocorticism due to?

A

general adrenal hyperplasia
or functional tumor of adrenal cortex
=> excess cortisol secretion

119
Q

What is secondary hyperadrenocorticism?

A

pituitary hyperadrenocorticism, aka
“Classical form”

120
Q

What is hyperadrenocorticism caused by?

A

↑ ACTH from anterior pituitary
(pituitary tumor, e.g., adenoma or
carcinoma)
or other cortisol-producing tumor

121
Q

What does an ↑ in ACTH secretion cause?

A
  • Adrenal hyperplasia & excess cortisol
    secretion
  • other cortisol producing tumor
122
Q

What are Regarded as modified sympathetic
postganglionic neurons?

A

Chromaffin cells

123
Q

What are Lost axons & dendrites during embryonic development & have become secretory cells?

A

Chromaffin cells

124
Q

What kind of granules do chromaffin cells have?

A

Secretory granules of
Epinephrine or Nor-
epinephrine

125
Q

What are catecholamines secreted in response to?

A

Intense emotional reactions
- defensive reaction to stress

126
Q

What are symptoms of a release of catecholamines?

A
  • Increase heart rate
  • Dilates blood vessels supplying cardiac &
    skeletal muscle
  • Bronchiole dilation
  • Vasoconstriction of blood vessels
    supplying GI tract, kidneys, skin…
127
Q

What is pheochromocytoma?

A

Benign tumor of the chromaffin cells

128
Q

What secretion does pheochromocytoma have?

A

Episodic of epinephrine and Nor-e

129
Q

What are signs and symptoms of pheochromocytoma?

A

those of
sympathetic nervous system
hyperactivity: elevated heart rate,
BP, palpitations, diaphoresis,
anxiety, headaches, nausea

130
Q

What does pheochromocytoma precipitate?

A

Because of excessive
catecholamine secretion,
pheochromocytomas may
precipitate life-threatening
hypertension or cardiac
arrhythmias

131
Q

Up to 25% of pheochromocytomas may be…

132
Q

What is the Hatfield-McCoy Feud partly explained by?

A

Rare-inherited disease (von Hippel-Landau) which led to rage and violence

133
Q

Roughly 3/4 of the affected McCoys have?

A

pheochromocytomas – tumors of the adrenal gland

D1 Fall - Histology (20 decks)

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