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PSYC105 > 1 - Developmental psychology > Flashcards

1 - Developmental psychology Flashcards

1
Q

What is developmental psychology?

A

The study of how behaviour changes over the lifespan

- Discipline of the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development of humans

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2
Q

What are some major theories of development?

A

Psychoanalytic theory: Freud and Erikson

  • Cognitive developmental theory: Piaget and Kohlberg
  • Social cognitive theory: early behaviourist thoeries through to Bandura’s social cognitive theory - Kay Bussey
  • Ethological theory: Attachment theories of Ainsworth and Bowlby
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3
Q

What is change and continuity in developmental psychology?

A

Involves identifying the factors that have changed over a period of time

  • Change: systematic changes are orderly, patterned and enduring i.e. crawling to walking, milestones, thinking changes
  • Continuities: refers to ways we remain the same or consistent over time e.g. attachment from infancy to adulthood, temperament
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4
Q

What are early experiences in childhood the womb?

A

Blastocyst, embryo, foetus, baby
- Things that may go wrong: problematic genes, environmental agents i.e. teratogens, placental failure, alcohol use, premature birth

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5
Q

What are early experiences in childhood sensitive periods

A

Early years are vital in the first 2 years

  • “teratogens” timing of exposure is critical e.g. facial anomalies in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, hearing/rubella virus
  • EMPIRICAL SUPPORT FOR SP: Neurological development 1st 3 years, language development acquisition, studies of Romanian orphans
  • Development of biological systems can be actuely timely sensitive
  • Cognitive impairments in later years related to timing AND the duration of deprivation
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6
Q

Early brain development and support for children

A

Sense & Interact!

  • responding adult
    1. Share talks, builds curiousity
    2. Support and encourage
    3. Name it - language connection
    4. Take turns, back and forth
    5. Practice endings and beginnings
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7
Q

Oversimplification of child development

A

(conceptual challenges)
Bidirectional influences from parent and child
- Some children may give obvious signals or less to implicate possible disability, temperament

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8
Q

Critical and sensitive periods of early experiences

A

(conceptual challenges)

While early life matters, it can be oversimplifcation and is most applicable to biological aspects of development

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9
Q

Areas of study in Developmental Psychology

A
  • Physical development: body changes, motor skills, puberty, physical signs of ageing
  • Cognitive development: perception, language, learning, memory, problem-solving
  • Psychosocial development: personality, emotions, gender identity, moral behaviour, interpersonal skills, roles
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10
Q

Developmental theories require

A
  • A framework; to organise thinking
  • A lens; guide collection of new facts which can also limit which facts we notice
  • Different theories dominate at different times
  • FOLK PSYCHOLOGY; impact of parent’s thoeries;parental locus of control and efficacy, representations of the child, discipline approaches
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11
Q

Nature and Nurture

A
  • There are universal genetically determined capacities for language, motor developement - stage theorists
  • But expression influenced by envrionment - what babies need to know to survive/do well and what is valued and what is possible - individual differences/cultural differences
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12
Q

What is maturation? (MOTOR DEVELOPMENT)

A

The unfolding of geneticalyl programmed behaviour patterns
- But environment (childrearing customs) has an impact; swaddling, carrying on baby, “baby” containers, experience in prone-SIDS prevention

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13
Q

Key theories of cognitive development

A

Piaget
- Constructivist theory, Stages, Classic discoveries
Vygotsky
- Social and cultural influences on learning
Sense of Self and Theory of Mind
- SOCIAL COGNITION, Classic discoveries - rouge/sticker, false belief task

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14
Q

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

A

Children’s minds are not miniature versions of the adult mind, there are profound differences (qualititative and quantitative)
- The child is action/not passive - constructs an understanding of the world through exploration and experience: maturation/nature/innate drives

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15
Q

Developmental progress

A

Process:

  1. equilibration: balance between new experiences and what we already know or think we know
  2. assimilation: new information “assimilated” into existing schemas — integrates and interprets new experiences in terms of existing schemas
  3. accomadation: schemas updated to accommodate new information — modify or create new schemas in response to our experiences
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16
Q

Piaget: Four main stages of intellectural growth

A

At each stage, children think in qualitatively different ways

  1. Sensori-motor intelligence (birth - 2 years): object permanence
  2. Pre-operation period (2-7 years): mental representations, but pre-logical/egocentric, conservation a challenge
  3. Concrete operations (7-11 years): mental operations, but only for physical/concrete mateirals - e.g. add/subtract
  4. Formal operations (11 years-onwards): hypothetical reasoning - mental operations on abstract concepts e.g. algebra, hypothesis e.g. pendulum, see-saw
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17
Q

Object permanence

A
  • Infants < 8 months: out of sight, out of mind - no effort to retrieve hidden objects
  • Infants ~ 9-12 months: search BUT where last found - A not B effect - object does not exist indepedent child’s actions
  • Infants 12-18 months: understand not only that objects continue to exist, but that they can be moved while out of sight - invisible displacements
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18
Q

Strengths and limitations of Piaget’s Theory

A

Strengths:
- Landmark thoery - not just minature adults, fascinating aspects of pre-logical thinking
- Learning as an active process -influences
- Processes cross domains e.g. conservation
Critiques (more next year):
- Stages too rigit/prescriptive
- Under-estimated children’s abilities
- Methodological issues - tasks demands/language
Universality:
- Western bias
- Many don’t reach higher levels
- Context not sufficiently considered

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19
Q

Other theoretical approaches to cognitive development

A

Vygotsky - sociocultural theory:
- learning collaborative - social contexts
- social - role of siblings, peers, scaffolding
- zone of proximal development
Information
Information Processing Approach:
- increased capacity of neural systems such as: the processing of information, effortfl to automatic (e.g. driving), more sophisticated memory strategies

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20
Q

Influences on developing a Theory of Mind: Nature and Nurture

A
  • Brain maturation - age threshold
  • Relations with langauge development
  • Pretend play
    Social interactions:
  • parental use of mental state language: parents who explain and discuss
  • quality of parent child relationship
  • prescence of older siblings
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21
Q

Classic experiments and developmental breakthroughs:

A

The importance of mental states and perspective taking for relationships
- Things exist indepdent of my actions upon them
- Objects/people have an essence indepdent of appearance
- Objects follow the laws of Physics
- Symbols (words, dolls, drawings) represent things
Social cognititon: mini psychologist - rouge test, others may think/see things differently to me - breaking down egocentrism –> perspective taking, playing tricks
- Symbols can be “manipulated” the thoery of mind

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22
Q

Overview of attachment theory

A
  • Origins of attachment theory: animal work; Ethology
  • Individual differencs: assessing attachments - The Strange Situation Procedure
  • How do individual differences come about: sensitive response parenting
  • Temperament - tailoring parenting
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23
Q

An ethological basis

A
  • Based on work of Lorenz, Harlow - evolutionary biology, critical/sensitive periods
  • Primary function - protection of the young
  • Specifies specific attachment behaviour systems with proximity to the caregiver (safety/protection) as set goal
24
Q

Balance between exploratory and attachment systems is fundamental (Bowlby/Ainsworth)

A
  • Naturalistic observations of mother-child interactions
  • Concepts of “safe haven” and “secure base”
  • Reaction to separation and reunion reveals individual differences
  • Developed “Strange Situation Procedure”
  • Observational studies of prescursors of secure attachment - sensitive caregiving
25
Q

Scoring dimensions

A
  • Proximity and contact seeking
  • Contact maintaing
  • Resistance
  • Avoidance
  • Search
  • Distance interaction
26
Q

Individual differences in Attachment

A
  • Secure (50-60%) - separation distress, reunion terminates - resume exploration
  • Insecure anxious-ambivalent (15-20%) - extreme separation distress, not terminated by reunion - unable to resume exploration
  • Insecure avoidant (15-20%) limited separation distress, limited response to mother on reunion - exploration focus
  • Disorganised (5-10%) - no coherent strategy, confusing/contradictory or bizarre behavour
27
Q

Developmental Sequelae

A

Secure attachment; protective and resilience
- better relations with peers
- more leadership
- better emotion regulation
- relate better to teachers: Sroufe anmd colleagues Minnesota study
Disorganised attachment - clinically significant problems later in development

28
Q

Limitations and conceptual clarifications of attachment

A
  • A “relationship construct” is a different attachment to different parents is possible
  • Stability of SSP classifications variable - espcially if life circmstance change
  • Note other approaches to assesment - Q sotrt - ecological validity
  • Need different measurement approaches as child develops - key aspect of SSP - “activation of the attachment system”
29
Q

How do individual differences in attachment come about?

A

NATURE AND NURTURE (transactional)
Parenting and attachment
- parents differ in how they respond to their infants
- infants differ in what they bring to relationships - temperament - evocative
Parent challenge is to modulate their responses to match the baby they have

30
Q

Ainsworth’s Core Features of Sensitivity

A
  1. Does parent notice and receive infant signal cues?
  2. Does parent interpret these accurately?
  3. Does parent respnd promptly and appropriately/flexibly?
31
Q

Gender stereotypes

A
  • Set of beliefs about being a boy or a girl
  • Beliefs about behavioural patterns that are appropriate for each gender
  • Gendered parental practices: colour of clothing, room decorations, toys, parental domestic activities and occuptions
  • Others also respond to boys and girls differently (e.g. teachers, peers)
32
Q

Infancy

A
  • There are few differences except obvious anatomical ones

- Newborns are labelled as girls or boys and gender stereotypes affect how they are perceived and treated

33
Q

Infancy - 2 years

A

By the time a child is 2 years old, the groundwork for later gender-role development has been established

  • Others view a child’s sex as important and boys and girls are seen as different
  • Infants begin to form categories of “male” and “female”
  • They establish a basic gender identity and pursue gender stereotypical activities
34
Q

Childhood

A
  • Gender development proceeds rapidly
  • Upon entering school children have acquired many stereotypes about how the sexes differ
  • Children prefer gender stereotypical activities and same-sex playmates
  • Behaviour for boys, especially, becomes highly gender stereotypical
  • Gender segregation is strong in middle childhood
35
Q

Adolescents

A
  • After going their separate ways in childhood, in adolescence boys and girls come together in intimate ways - the beginning of romantic relationships
  • Biological changes and social pressures in adolescnece are related to an intesification of gender differences
  • Stimulates the formaton of an adult gender identity
36
Q

Aggression

A

Boys engage in more rough and tumble play than do girls

  • Adolescent males are arrested for violent crimes five times more often than are adolescent females
  • Men are more violent than women, and boys engage in more physical aggression than girls
  • Girls engage in relational aggression (manipulation of peer relationships): social exclusion, rumour spreading, talking behind their back
  • Girls engage in more relational aggression than physical aggression but so do boys
37
Q

Cognitive abilities

A
  • Men perform better than women on spatial tests involving mental rotation
  • It is assumed that men’s superior visuospatial abilities underlie the difference in quantitative aptittude and achievement
  • However, women perform better on some of these tasks e.g. those that require memory for shapes and perceptual speed
  • Gender differences in mathematics performance are small
  • Recent meta-analyses show that the gap between men and women for maths and science and academic performances has
    reduced over time (Bursal, 2013; Hyde et al, 2008; Voyer & Voyer, 2014).
  • More support for the similarity hypothesis (Hyde, 2014).
38
Q

Gender difference in Verbal Ability

A

Gender difference in verbal performance is also small

- Slight female superiority

39
Q

Gender theories

A
  1. Psychoanalytic theory (identification - Oedipus complex, Electra complex)
  2. Biological basis (chromosomes, hormones, evolutationary theory)
  3. Cognitive devleopmental theory (Kohlberg, gender schemas)
  4. Gender schema theory (martin and halverson - gender schemas)
  5. Social cognitive theory (Bandura and Bussey - social influences via parents, peers and the media (enactive experience, direct tuiton, modelling) affect personal factors (outcome expectations, self-evaluations, and self-efficacy beliefs)
40
Q

What is gender identity?

A
  • Kohlberg (1966, 1969) used the term gender constancy to refer to the concept that a person’s sex is a permanent attribute that is tied to underlying biological properties (i.e. the person’s genitals and genetic constitution)
  • It does not depend on surface characteristics such as the person’s hair length, style of clothing, choice of play activities, and so on
41
Q

What is gender constancy?

A

Comprised of 3 components:

  1. Gender identity
  2. Gender stability
  3. Gender consistency
42
Q

Moral development

A

A series of stages of increasingly complex thinking about what is right and wrong in specific situations

  • societal prohibitions - learning not to do wrong
  • internalisation and self-punishment
  • parenting practices
  • doing good
  • empathy
  • prosocialness
43
Q

Moral conduct

A
  • Children learn the rules of moral conduct initally from their parents
  • They learn what they should not do and what they should do
44
Q

Theories of Morality

A
  • Piaget’s theory
  • Kohlberg’s theory
  • Freud’s theory of conscience
  • Social cognitive theory (Bandura)
45
Q

Piaget’s theory of morality

A
  • Morality of constraint, morality of cooperation, intentions versus consequences
    “Paul was stealing a biscuit from the cookie jar when he broke a cup and saucer”
    “Peter was sweeping out the kitchen when he knocked
    over a tray and broke 15 cups and saucers”.
    1. “either-or stage”
    2. “simultaneous coordination stage”
46
Q

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

A

preconventional, conventional, postconventional

  • Moral development proceeds through a universal and invariant sequence of three broad moral stages; each is composed of two levels
  • Kohlberg asked 10-, 13- and 16-year-old boys questions about moral dilemmas to study moral reasoning
47
Q

Kohlberg - Stage 1

A

PRECONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Focus on satisfying their own needs: avoiding punishment and obtaining personal awards
Level 1: Avoid punishment – I won’t do it, because I don’t want to get punished
Level 2: Reward – What can I get out of this?

48
Q

Kohlberg - Stage 2

A

CONVENTIONAL MORALITY
Focus on social approval: right and wrong are defined by the convention and by what people will say
Level 3: Gain approval and avoid disapproval of others:
“I won’t do it because if I do people won’t like me”
Level 4: Rigid codes of “law and order”
“I won’t do it, because I don’t want to break the law”

49
Q

Kohlberg - Stage 3

A

POSTCONVENTIONAL MORALITY
- Focus on abstract ideals: Broad principles of justice and internalisation of personal moral principles
Level 5: “Social contract” agreed upon for the public good
“I will do it because it is my duty, because I’m obliged to do it”
Level 6: Abstract ethical principles that
determine one’s own moral code I will do it because it is the right thing to do regardless of what others think

50
Q

Moral Reasoning and Moral Conduct

A

Can we predict how people will act if we know
how they reason morally?
• Delinquents score lower on moral reasoning
than do non-delinquents
• Those who score higher on moral reasoning are
less likely to cheat than those who score lower
• Overall, however, espousing moral principles
does not mean abiding by them

51
Q

Moral Disengagement

A

A concept used to explain the mismatch between adopting moral standards and not behaving in accord with those standards (Bandura, 2002).
• Selective activation and disengagement of internal control permits different types of conduct with the same moral standards.

52
Q

Self sanctions in Moral disengagement

A

by:
- reconstruing the conduct (moral justification, euphemistic labeling, advantageous comparison),
- obscuring personal causal agency (displacement of
responsibility, diffusion of responsibility),
- misrepresenting or disregarding the injurious consequences of one’s actions (distorting the consequences of action), and
- vilifying the recipients of maltreatment by blaming
(attribution of blame) and devaluing them (dehumanization)
- Enables good people to behave badly without feeling any self-loathing or remorse.

53
Q

Types of Parenting styles

A
  • Authoritative - high warmth, high control (but “democratic” control - perspective taking, reasoned discipline) - most analogous to sensitivity
    • Authoritarian - low warmth, high control - “I am the boss” - may become abusive…
    • Permissive - high warmth, low control - parent like a peer….
    • Uninvolved (Maccoby & Martin, 1983) - low warmth, low control - neglect
54
Q

Adolescence

A

Teenagers first described in 1950s
• Became a prominent force in 1960s
• Became an extended phase of the lifespan
in the 21st century - “adultescence”
• Delayed “adult milestones”
• Issues of identity formation - Erik Erikson

55
Q

Key Changes in Adolescence

A

Biological - hormonal changes - oestrogens & androgens
• Puberty - sexual characteristics
• Menarche and spermarche
• Timing varies - some genetic contribution, but also
environmental - health, nutrition
• Cognitive - thinking - Piaget -Formal Operations, PostFormal thinking - no absolutes
- but frontal lobes not fully mature - limited impulse
control

56
Q

Erikson’s Developmental Tasks

A

• Trust vs mistrust (birth-1 yr) → hope
• Autonomy vs shame & doubt (1-3 yrs) → will of their
own
• Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs) → purpose
• Industry vs inferiority (6-11 yrs) → competence
• Identity vs role confusion (adolescence) →fidelity &
belonging
• Intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood) →love
• Generativity (midlife)→ care
• Integrity vs despair (late adult) → wisdom

57
Q

“Social Clock” Neugarten

A

Emphasis on timing of major life events - On time vs. Off time
-Examples
• Normative life transitions - occur to most people
can be on time or off time
- Examples
• Non-normative - unusual, unexpected events, or a timing not sanctioned by
society

PSYC105 (9 decks)

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