1 Flashcards
Define attachment
A close, reciprocal (2 way) relationship between two individuals, in which each sees the other as essential for their own emotional security
What are the two main approaches to explaining why attachments are formed?
- Learning Theory
(Learning to form attachments - NURTURE) - Bowlby’s Theory
(Innate instincts to form attachments - NATURE)
Define primary caregiver
Person who spends most time with infant, caring for its needs
Define primary attachment figure
Person who has the strongest attachment with the infant
Is the primary caregiver the same person as the primary attachment figure?
Often, but not always
What are 3 behaviours that infants may display at the start of their life, which can be linked to forming an attachment?
- Proximity
(Trying to stay physically close to attachment figure) - Separation distress
(Signs of anxiety when attachment figure removed) - Secure-base behaviour
(Making regular contact with attachment figure)
How are caregiver-infant interactions linked to attachment?
Good, frequent caregiver-infant interactions are associated with the formation of good early attachments
What are the 2 main caregiver-infant interactions we must know?
- Reciprocity
- Interactional synchrony
What is reciprocity?
When each person (caregiver and infant) responds to the other + elicits a response from them
Give an example of reciprocity
- Baby smiles
- Caregiver responds by speaking
- This speaking elicits another response from baby (e.g gurgle)
- Cycle continues
What is a simplified definition of reciprocity?
Turn-taking
Who initiates the start of a reciprocal caregiver-infant interaction?
Caregiver or baby (babies now believed to have ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT - once thought to have been passive)
When/how do babies initiate a reciprocal caregiver-infant interaction?
Babies enter ALERT PHASES
Periods in which babies signal, eg through eye contact, that they are ready to interact
Do mothers always respond to babies’ attempts to initiate a period of interaction?
No
- Mother’s have different levels of SENSITIVE RESPONSIVENESS
- This depends on own skill and external factors (eg stress)
- Feldman + Eidelman (2000) found mothers notice and respond to alert phases 2/3 of time
How does mother’s sensitive responsiveness impact attachment formation?
Greater sensitive responsiveness = greater attachment formed (more reciprocity, a caregiver-infant interaction that helps build this attachment)
How did Brazelton (1975) describe the reciprocal interactions between caregivers + infants?
Dance
Outline a research study that can be used to exemplify reciprocity
Brazelton (1979)
- ‘Frozen face study’
- Aim: To examine reciprocity in caregiver-infant interactions
- Procedure: Mother told to freeze face and stop reciprocating infant’s interaction
- Findings: Infant becomes distressed
- Conclusion: The reciprocity of caregiver-infant interactions is important in the development of healthy, secure attachments
What is interactional synchrony?
Caregiver and infant reflect each others’ actions + emotions in a synchronised way
How did Feldman (2007) describe interactional synchrony?
The temporal coordination of micro-level social behaviour
Give an example of interactional synchrony
- Infant imitating facial expressions
- Infant imitating speech (facilitated by caregiverese)
What is caregiverese?
Innate parental instinct to make speech simple, high-pitched + repetitive, so it is easier for infants to mimic in interactional synchrony
Who found evidence of caregiverese across multiple cultures?
Papousek et al (1991)
How does interactional synchrony levels impact attachment?
Greater interactional synchrony = greater attachment (as interactional synchrony is a caregiver-infant interaction that helps build this attachment)
What research established the link between interactional synchrony and strong attachment?
Isabella et al (1989)
Outline a research study that can be used to exemplify interactional synchrony
Meltzoff + Moore (1977)
Aim:
- To examine interactional synchrony in caregiver-infant interactions
Procedure:
- Adult displayed 3 distinct facial expressions
- Baby’s response recorded in uncontrolled observation
Findings:
- Clear association between adult’s behaviour + infant’s response
- Association present in babies as young as 2 weeks old
Conclusion:
- Interactional synchrony is important part of caregiver-infant interactions
- Interactional synchrony is innate
Give 2 positive points when evaluating the role of caregiver-infant interactions in attachment formation
Application
- Know these interactions are important for forming secure early attachments
- Can apply to parenting training
- Crotwell et al (2013) found showing 20 low income mothers a 10 min ‘Parent-Child Interaction Therapy’ video improved their interactional synchrony compared to a control group
Methodology
- Many caregiver-infant interactions that have been analysed were filmed in controlled environments
- Filmed means less observer bias (reviewed by many observers)
- Controlled means less extraneous variables, increasing the validity of the results
Give 2 negative points when evaluating the role of caregiver-infant interactions in attachment formation
Methodology
- Infants are hard to observe, as they are fairly immobile + we don’t know their perspective
- E.g. smiling to signal alert phase for reciprocity may actually be ‘smiling’ when passing wind
- Hard to draw valid conclusions from infant observations
Debates + Issues
- Socially sensitive
- Conclusions suggest that sensitive responsiveness from parents + good caregiver-infant interactions are essential for forming secure attachments
- Suggests some parenting styles are wrong + parents need to change their behaviour (eg stop working to spend time with infant)
Who proposed the Stages of Attachment?
Schaffer + Emerson (1964)
How many stages of attachment are there?
4
Define the stages of attachment
A sequence of qualitatively different behaviours linked to different ages (of the infant) that all infants experience in the same order
State the stages of attachment in order
1) Asocial stage
2) Indiscriminate attachment
3) Specific/discriminate attachment
4) Multiple attachments
Describe the Asocial Stage of attachment
First few weeks (up to approx 2 months old)
- Infants behave similarly to objects + humans
- Infants show some preference for eyes + faces
Describe the Indiscriminate Stage of attachment
Approx 2-7 months old
- Infants show preference for human company
- Infants recognise/slightly prefer familiar people, but are not attached yet (no separation anxiety)
- Infants can be comforted by anyone (no stranger anxiety)
Describe the Specific/Discriminate Stage of attachment
Approx 7 months +
- Infants attached to one caregiver, their ‘primary attachment figure’
- Infants display attachment behaviours (separation + stranger anxiety)
Describe the Multiple Attachments Stage of attachment
Shortly after Specific Stage (29% within a month of it), most by 1 yr old
- Infants form secondary attachments to other caregivers
- Infants display attachment behaviours (separation + stranger anxiety) to multiple people
Outline Schaffer + Emerson’s 1964 study
Aim:
- To investigate the process by which attachments are formed
Sample:
- 60 babies + their mums
- Working class families from Glasgow
Procedure:
- Longitudinal study
- Visited infants (+mums) at home monthly until 1yr old, then again at 18 months old
- Observed + did interviews (on attachment behaviours)
Findings:
- 6 to 8 months old, most had separation anxiety
- One month later, most had stranger anxiety
- By 18 months, 87% had multiple attachments
Conclusion:
- Attachments formed in same linear process, outlined in Schaffer’s Stages of Attachment
Give 2 positive evaluation points for Stages of Attachment
Methodology
- Longitudinal
- Reduced extraneous variables of a 1 off study
- Increased internal validity
Practical applications
- Stages can be used to understand infant development
- Can help parents (eg know to introduce child to nursery during indiscriminate stage, where no separation/stranger anxiety)
Give 2 negative evaluation points for Stages of Attachment
Low generalisability
- Limited sample (60, working class from Glasgow) reduces population validity across GB and also across the world (nomothetic theory is unreasonable, eg collectivist cultures form multiple attachments faster)
- Not recent (1964) reduces temporal validity
- Results may not apply to everyone forever
Debates & issues
- Reductionist
- Only predominantly based on 2 attachment behaviours (separation + stranger anxiety)
- Stages may be over-simplified, lowering validity, as trying to create a too-generic ‘one size fits all’
What role has been heavily debated regarding attachment?
The role of the father
How is ‘father’ defined in psychology?
Anyone who takes on the role of the male caregiver
What 3 theories exist about the role of the father?
- Father cannot act as primary attachment figure
- Father has a role as a playmate
- Father can act as primary attachment figure
Outline the theory that the father cannot act as the primary attachment figure
- Men are not psychologically/biologically/socially equipped to form primary attachments
- Men have less oestrogen (less of an innate tendency to care)
- Men have low sensitive responsiveness to infants, so are less able to have the caregiver-infant interactions important in forming attachments
Give 2 pieces of research that support the role of the father as not being the primary attachment figure
Hrdy (1999)
- Found fathers less able to detect infant distress than mothers
- Supports theory they have low sensitive responsiveness, less caregiver-infant interactions
Schaffer + Emerson (1964)
- Found fathers statistically less likely to become primary attachment
- Only 3% attachments within first 7 months were to father (primary)
- 75% had attachment to father within first 18 months (multiple)
Outline the theory that the father acts as a playmate
- Fathers make unique contributions as playmates
- Fathers help with exciting stimulation, rather than nurturing emotional development
Give 2 pieces of research that support the role of the father as a playmate
Grossmann et al (2002)
- Longitudinal study
- Found adolescents only affected by attachments to MOTHER + quality of play with FATHER
- Supports father’s important role as playmate
Geiger (1996)
- Analysed play
- Father’s play more exciting
- Mother’s play more nurturing
- Supports father’s tendencies to stimulate fun + excitement, not nurture
Outline the role of the father as the primary attachment figure
- Men have no innate attachment issue (eg same sensitive responsiveness)
- Men can act as primary attachment figures when given opportunity
- Men often don’t take on this role due to social stereotypes of gender roles (traditionally work, so spend less time with infant to attach)
Give 2 pieces of research that support the role of the father as the primary attachment figure
Field (1978)
- Filmed 4 month old infants with: primary mothers, primary fathers, secondary fathers
- Found similar levels of high caregiver-infant interactions between primary mothers + primary fathers
- Suggests men have same biological potential to form first attachment
Belsky et al (2009)
- Found males with high marital intimacy displayed more secure father-infant attachments
- Suggests role of father is dependent on time spent with infant, not limited by gender, as an involved father can form good attachment
Give 2 positive evaluation points for the role of the father
Research support
- There are 2 pieces of strong research support for each theory
Practical application
- As one theory shows potential for fathers to act as primary attachment figures, it can give couples reassurance (eg gay couples)
Give 2 negative evaluation points for the role of the father
Research is inconclusive
- There are three contrasting theories, all supported by research, that draw contrasting conclusions
Social and economic implications
- One theory suggests fathers cannot form primary attachments
- If this is the case, mothers may feel pressurised to stay at home
- May interrupt jobs/cut off primary source of income
