1 Flashcards
1
Q
What is Etiology?
A
The cause of disease or suffering
2
Q
What is influenza pneumonia?
A
Infectious inflammation of lungs
3
Q
What is the etiological agent for influenza pneumonia?
A
Influenza virus
4
Q
What is acute cystitis?
A
Dramatic Inflammation of the bladder
5
Q
What is the etiological agent of acute cystitis?
A
Gram Negative rods (E. Coli)
6
Q
What is an idiopathic disease?
A
Disease in which the cause is unknown
7
Q
What type of disease is Ankylosing Spondylitis?
A
Idiopathic
8
Q
aka Ankylosing Spondylitis?
A
Bamboo Spine
9
Q
What happens during ankylosing spondylitis?
A
Inflammation of joints leads to vertebral body fusion
10
Q
What type of disease is hyperostosis?
A
Idiopathic
11
Q
What occurs during Hyperostosis?
A
Abnormal growth of osseous tissue
12
Q
What is the AKA of hyperostosis?
A
DISH
13
Q
AKA of Hyperostosis?
A
Forestier’s Disease
14
Q
What does hyperostosis lead to?
A
Fusion, ossification of the Anterior Longitudinal Ligament (ALL)
15
Q
What are the 3 categories of Etiology?
A
Genetic, Congenital, Idiopathic
16
Q
What does Genetic etiology mean?
A
The individual’s
17
Q
What 2 diseases are genetic?
A
Huntington’s and Down’s Syndrome
18
Q
Onset of Huntington’s Disease?
A
30-35 years
19
Q
What are the symptoms during Huntington’s disease?
A
Loss of motor function due to loss of neurons, enlargement of ventricles
20
Q
Huntington’s disease = degeneration of ____
A
Basal Ganglia
21
Q
In regards to Huntington’s disease, define Chorea:
A
Rapid, jerky, involuntary movements of face and extremities
22
Q
Dementia is associated with what disease?
A
Huntington’s
23
Q
What type of disease is Down’s Syndrome?
A
Genetic
24
Q
What is Down’s Syndrome?
A
Chromosomal abnormality resulting in mental handicap and a characteristic physical appearance
25
What is Trisomy 21 associated with?
Down Syndrome
26
What is Trisomy 21?
Extra chromosome 21
27
When are people most likely to have a child with Down syndrome?
When the male or female is over 35 years old
28
What is a "Congenital" Disease?
When genetic information is intact, but other factors in the embryo's intrauterine environment interfere with normal development
29
Toxoplasmosis is what type of disease?
Congenital
30
Toxoplasmosis causes what effect?
Teratogenic Effect on the child
31
What is the teratogenic effect?
Abnormal development
32
What is a teratogen?
An agent that causes physical abnormality in a developing embryo or fetus
33
Teratogenic effect =
Physical Abnormality
34
What is toxoplasmosis caused by?
Protozoan toxoplasma gondii (cat feces)
35
What is similar to toxoplasmosis?
Rubella
36
What type of disease is Fetal alcohol syndrome?
Congenital
37
When does fetal alcohol syndrome have a high effect?
It has the highest teratogenic effect in the first 3 days of pregnancy and the first trimester
38
What type of disease is from Thalidomide?
Congenital
39
What is thalidomide?
Sleeping drug (Pfizer) administered to pregnant women to prevent morning sickness
40
What are the teratogenic effects of Thalidomide?
Some born with one eye, others born with no extremities.
| it did not necessarily decrease the life expectancy of the child
41
What 3 Diseases are associated with AQUIRED etiology?
1) Herpetic Rash
2) Emphysema
3) Parameningeal Infection
42
Where would you see Herpes Zoster?
Under Herpetic Rash
43
Herpes Zoster is associated with:
Shingles
44
What is herpes zoster: shingles caused by?
Varicella-Zoster virus, which also causes chicken pox
45
When does herpes rash, Herpes Zoster occur?
When the immune system is compromised, a dramatic suppression of the immune system
46
Herpatic rash follows ____
Dermatomes
47
What is emphysema caused by?
Cigarette smoking
48
Emphysema results in:
Lung consolidation due to the rupture and damage of alveoli
49
What can emphysema lead to?
Respiratory/heart failure
50
Parameningeal Infection, aka:
Brain Abscess
51
Brain abscess occurs by:
Improper pimple popping
52
What is the bacteria associated with parameningeal infection?
Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus Pyrogenes
53
Parameningeal Infection communication via:
Veins of the face and brain
54
Streptodermal aka:
Acne
55
What is a brain abscess?
Large cavity in the brain surrounded by a membrane
56
What is an abscess?
Any collection of pus in the body from pus-forming bacteria (pyogenic)
57
Infection can enter venous system _____
and move to the brain via veins of the face causing a brain abscess
58
What is a symptom?
Subjective finding of disease manifestation, pain, nausea, headaches
59
What is a sign?
A sign is measurable and can be seen, it is an objective finding of disease manifestation
60
What are examples of signs?
High BP, fever, or rash
61
What is a syndrome?
The characteristic combination of signs and symptoms associated with a particular disease
62
What are the 2 syndromes we discussed?
Raynaud's and Sjogren's
63
What happens during Raynaud's syndrome?
Vasospastic contractions of distal vessels
64
What happens during 1st contraction of Raynaud's?
Contraction of arteries, Fingers/Toes appear WHITE
65
What happens during 2nd contraction of Raynaud's?
Fingers/Toes appear BLUE due to contraction of veins
66
What happens to 3rd instance of Raynaud's?
Relaxation of vessels and blood returns. Fingers/toes appear RED
67
What is Sjogren's Syndrome?
Autoimmune destruction of exocrine glands, more common in females over 35 y.o.
68
What are the symptoms of Sjogren's syndrome?
Total dryness of mucous membranes due to damage of exocrine glands
69
What are the 2 main symptoms associated with Sjogren's syndrome?
Xerostomia and Xeropthalmia
70
What is xerostomia?
Dry mouth, due to inflammation of sublingual gland
71
What is Xeropthalmia?
Dry eyes, due to inflammation of lacrimal gland. Can cause ulcers
72
Sjogren's syndrome causes bilateral _____
Parotitis, inflamed parotid glands (hamster face appearance)
73
T/F, joint pain is a manifestation of Sjogren's syndrome?
FALSE, but rheumatoid joint pain or rheumatoid arthritis can be present
74
What is pathogenesis?
Pattern of development of the disease
75
What is an acute disease?
An illness that develops rapidly (5-7 days)
76
What is an example of an acute disease?
Virus or Cold
77
What is a chronic disease?
At least 6 weeks or more, slow and serious development
78
What is a subacute disease?
Rare classification, and it's between one and six weeks in duration
79
Define Local Disease:
Disease confined to one region of the body
80
Example of local disease:
Stomach cancer
81
Define Systemic Disease:
Involved multiple organs or systems
82
Example of Systemic Disease:
Metastasized stomach cancer
83
Define Focal Damage:
Limited to one or more distant sites within a diseased organ
84
What is an example of Focal Damage?
One tumor in the stomach
85
What is diffuse damage?
Uniformly distributed damage within a diseased organ, (ENTIRE organ is affected)
86
What is an example of diffuse damage?
Entire stomach is cancerous
87
What describes how much tissue of the organ is affected?
Focal and Diffuse damages
88
What is a diagnosis?
Identification of the patient's specific disease
89
What is a prognosis?
Prediction of a patient's disease outcome
90
What are the 3 causes of cell injury?
1) Deficiency
2) Intoxication
3) Trauma
91
Define, "Deficiency" in regards to cause of cell injury:
The lack of substances necessary to a cell
92
What types of deficiencies are there?
1) Primary Nutrient Deficiency
| 2) Secondary Nutrient Deficiency
93
Define what primary nutrient deficiency means:
Simple absence of nutrient components in food
94
What disease is associated with "Primary Nutrient Deficiency"?
Pellegra
95
What is Pellegra?
Vitamin B3 (Niacin) deficiency resulting in Casel's Necklace dermatitis
96
Defined what secondary nutrient deficiency is:
Component(s) are in the food but cannot be absorbed
97
What is a common example of secondary nutrient deficiency?
Vitamin B12 resulting in pernicious anemia
98
What must B12 be combined with?
An intrinsic factor to be carried into blood
99
What is Vitamin B12 needed for?
For normal red blood cell production in bone marrow and normal nerve cell metabolism
100
What is "Intoxication" in regards to Causes of cell injury?
This is essentially poisoning, presence of a substance or toxin that interferes with cell function
101
What 2 types of toxins are there in regards to Intoxication of Cell Injury?
Exogenous and Endogenous
102
What are the 3 categories of Exogenous toxins?
1) Microbes
2) Chemicals
3) Overdose of some medications
103
What are microbes (Exogenous toxins)?
Infection (usually gram negative rods)
104
What are chemicals (Exogenous toxins)?
Added to food to extend expiration date
105
Endogenous toxins sometimes results from _____
Disruption in normal metabolic reactions
106
What are the examples of endogenous toxins?
1) If an enzyme is missing, the intermediate before it accumulates and becomes toxic
2) Same as above except the intermediates is used in an alternate pathway, which can produce a toxic product
107
What is a genetic component of endogenous toxins?
Non - production of an enzyme
108
What is an example of a genetic endogenous toxin? (accumulation of a normal metabolite)
Alkaptonuria (black urine disease)
109
What is wrong in your body when you have Alkaptonuria?
Normally phenylalanine is converted to tyrosine, but it is not happening
110
Oxidase of _____ happens during Alkaptonuria
Homogentistic acid
111
If oxidase is not produced, what happens during Alkaptonuria?
If oxidase is not produced, homogentistic acid (an intermediate, AKA alkapton) is not converted
112
What is excreted in the urine which makes it appear black during Alkaptonuria?
Homogentistic acid
113
What does Alkapton have a specific attraction to?
The cartilage and to the calcium salt
114
Homogentistic acid can also accumulate in _____
in specific tissues
115
What is ochronosis?
Accumulation of homogenistic acid into cartilage of multiple joints
116
What is a common site of accumulation leading to OA and severe degeneration?
Cartilage
117
What does ochronosis cause?
Homogentisic acid is deposited in the cartilage causing onchronosis, and there is severe degeneration of the cartilage of vertebral column and complete CALCIFICATION OF IVD's
118
Ochronosis causes ______
Hyperpigmentation such as changes in ear color (homogetisic acid resembles melanin, black pigment). Urine turns black after 30-40 seconds when exposed to air
119
What is Hyperhomocysteinemia?
Accumulation of homocysteine leads to atherosclerosis
120
What can hyperhomocysteinemia be prevented by?
Vitamin B6, B12, and Folic Acid
121
What is phenylketonuria?
The enzyme phenylalanine hydroxyls is missing so phenylalanine is not covered to tyrosine
122
What is tyrosine?
An important factor for melanin and neurotransmitters like epinephrine, NE, and Dopamine.
123
When phenylalanine is not converted to tyrosine, what happens?
Activation of an alternative pathway. Phenylalanine is converted to ketones phenyl acetic acid, phenylpyruvic acid, or phenyl lactic acid
124
What do production of Phenylacetic acid, phenylpyruvic acid, or phenyl lactic acid result in?
Brain underdevelopment, and sour smell. Most of these kids never speak nor walk. It's prevented by not eating foods with phenylalanine in it
125
Ionizing Radiation is under what category?
Endogenous, Intoxication of Cell Injury
126
What does Ionizing Radiation produce?
Free radicals
127
What are the most vulnerable things to ionizing radiation?
DNA, cell proteins, and membrane lipids. The cell membrane is the most important part of the cell
128
What is the accumulation of metabolic by-product?
Low concentrations of normal metabolites are safe, but in excess are toxic
129
What is an example of an accumulation of metabolic by-product?
GOUT
130
Gout aka
eating of bones
131
What is Gout caused by?
Impairment of purine metabolism.
132
What does Gout cause?
Causes accumulation of uric acid in the blood (hyperurecemia)
133
What happens if uric acid gets to the joints?
It crystalizes the joints causing extremely painful arthritis
134
Where does the problem of GOUT come from?
The activation of the immune system against the uric acid that gets to joint because it is recognized as foreign and phagocytic cells are activated to destroy them
135
What causes the severe pain in GOUT?
The lysozymes destroy all cells in joints especially in the morning
136
What part of the body is highly affected by GOUT?
1st Metatarsal and is usually asymmetrical
137
GOUT aka
Hyperuricemia
138
What are the 3 major syndromes of GOUT?
1) Gouty arthritis
2) Soft tissue GOUT
3) Gouty Kidney
139
What is soft tissue Gout?
The deposition of uric acid crystal into the soft tissue is called TOPHUS
140
What happens during soft tissue gout?
Uric acid crystal penetrates the bursar of mainly the olecranon, and cartilage of proximal forearm and very commonly in the ears (tissue bulging occurs, but there is no pain)
141
What happens during "Gouty Kidney?"
It is asymptomatic, silent killer; deposits (typhus;tophi) of uric acid crystals in the kidney
142
How long does Gout y kidney last?
15-20 years later, and it develops very slowly with no clinical manifestations. Fatal outcome
143
What is a sign of renal failure ?
Smell of urine coming form the mouth
144
What is the only way to combat gouty arthritis?
Decreasing the amount of purine you eat, you can decrease the amount of uric acid that is produced (hence gout)
145
What are the 5 types of trauma associated with Cell injury?
1) Direct contact
2) Hypothermia
3) Hyperthermia
4) Mechanical pressure
5) Microorganisms
146
Define "Direct Contact" in regards to Trauma of cell injury:
Destruction of some cells mechanically
- Car accident, getting punched
147
What can Direct Contact of TRAUMA result in?
Results in hemorrhage, hematoma, battle sign (basal skull fracture), raccoon eyes
148
Define Hypothermia in regards to TRAUMA:
Exposure to extremely low temperature
149
What is an example of Hypothermia?
Frostbite
150
What happens during frostbite?
Freezing/crystallization of cytoplasmic fluid, causing expansion and destruction of cells and tissues; skin turns black (necrosis) - irreversible
151
What happens to the cell membrane during Frostbite?
The cell membrane will be broken from the freezing of the cytoplasmic fluid, because it expands as it freezes
152
Define Hyperthermia in regards to TRAUMA:
Exposure to extremely high temperature
153
What are the 3 types of Hyperthermia?
1) Fire
2) Ionizing radiation (in high doses)
3) Electrical current
154
What is the definition of Ionizing radiation in regards to Hyperthermia?
Direct burning of tissue due to the changing of an atom's orbit, which can lead to burning of a tissue
155
T/F, Ionizing radiation is under both Endogenous and Trauma toxins?
TRUE***
156
What is "electrical current" in regards to Hyperthermia?
Exposure due to high voltage, resulting in severe burns
157
What are the 5 subcategories under Mechanical pressure?
1) Pressure atrophy
2) Tumor
3) Stones
4) Aneurysm
5) High Intensity Sound (low frequency)
158
What is "Pressure Atrophy"?
Long periods of pressure on cells and/or tissues, which results in the loss of functional tissues
159
What is the definition of "Tumor"?
Results in compression of surrounding structures, causing destruction or decreased function
160
What is the definition of "Stones"?
Occupy tight spaces within kidney, gallbladder, etc.
161
What do "Stones" cause?
Obstruction of urine flow, increasing physical and osmotic pressure, resulting in loss of normal function
162
What is the definition of "Aneurysm?"
Pouching of an arterial wall, due to underdevelopment of middle arterial layer, can rupture causing instant death. Sizes can vary but most common location is in the brain
163
Where is the Aneurysms most common occurrence?
Cerebral vessels most common occurrence, at their bifurcation; subarachnoid hemorrhagic stroke (occur with rupture)
164
What is high intensity sound? (Low Frequency)
Causes damage of the sensory receptors of inner ear, with a permanent loss of hearing (can cause psychological issues)
165
What is an example of High Intensity Sound?
Listening to music too loudly and Real injury to receptors in inner ear
166
What are the 2 types of Microorganisms in regards to TRAUMA?
Malaria and Echinococcus Disease (Hydatid Disease)
167
What is Malaria?
Caused by the protozoan Plasmodium malaria, carried by anopheles mosquito
168
What does malaria enter?
RBC's and begin maturation in 2-4 days
169
What is the result of Malaria?
Results in destruction of RBC's, this = hemolytic anemia, fever, shaking, high temperature
170
What combats plasmodium malaria?
Syphilis - Treponema pallidum = high fever
171
Maturation after 2-4 days of malaria results in _____
massive hemolysis
172
What is Echinococcus Disease (Hydatid disease)?
Tapeworm parasite, ingested through pork
173
How does Echinococcus Disease (hydatid) spread?
Cysts within organ, results in pressure atrophy and organ rupture
174
What are common sites of Echinoccus Disease?
Brain and Liver, and these cysts will grow until the point that they destroy half the organ
175
What are the 3 changes in the cell?
1) Functional (reversible)
2) Structural (reversible)
3) Structural (irreversible)
176
What are the consequences of Cell Injury?
1) Morphological (structure) damage and functional damage, either causing the other
2) Example: Cell membrane damage affects function of cell, and sometimes functional changes cause structural changes
177
What is the first category of "Functional Reversible?"
Cell and Tissue Accumulation
178
What are the 4 types of Cell and Tissue Accumulation in regards to Functional reversible Cell injury?
1) Hydrophobic changes
2) Fatty changes (AKA Steatosis)
3) Residual bodies - scar/fragment of cell damage
4) Hyaline changes (aka Hyalinzation)
179
What are hydrophobic changes?
AKA hydrophobic degeneration, cloudy swelling
180
Cell injury causes a functional inability to produce ATP (mitochondrial damage is the first step), what is described?
Hydrophobic changes
181
What is the true problem with hydrophobic changes?
Na+ ions cannot be pumped out of the cell, increasing cellular osmotic pressure
182
What happens with the extracellular fluid during hydrophobic changes?
Extracellular fluid attempts to balance pressure, cell swells with H2O creating a cloudy appearance
183
Where do "Hydrophobic Changes" occur?
Specifically within the convoluted tubules of the kidney, there is a narrowing of the lumen due to swelling, which compress glomerular cells, leading to metabolite accumulation in the blood and kidney failure
184
An increase in urine leads to ______ (in regards to hydrophobic changes)
Leads to compression of the glomerulus
185
What is portal vein hypertension?
Associated with Hydrophobic changes, and this is obstruction of liver vascularization due to cell accumulation
186
What is a small summary of hydrophobic changes?
Decrease in size of the lumen, decrease in urine excretion, compression of the glomerulus, results in renal failure
187
Fatty changes (AKA steatosis) =
Cells of the liver; hepatocytes
188
What are fatty acids and proteins used for?
The production of lipoproteins, which go to the blood supply
189
What are other fatty acids used for?
Cholesterol to release bile and bile salts to the intestines
190
What can fatty changes do to the cells?
In reference to the accumulation of triglycerides (fatty acids) in parenchymal cells, they compress the cell contents moving them to the periphery of the cell reducing function; and can ultimately cause cell rupture
191
What are common sites of Fatty changes/ Steatosis?
Liver (classic), Kidney, Heart ***
192
What 5 factors result in Steatosis/ Fatty Changes?
1) Protein malnutrition
2) Intoxication
3) Anoxia
4) Obesity
5) Diabetes Mellitus
193
Describe Protein malnutrition:
No protein, which means no lipoprotein synthesis
194
Describe Intoxication:
Alcohol damages hepatocytes, which leads to accumulation of fatty acids and cells will swell and cause liver cirrhosis
195
Describe Anoxia:
Lack of O2 which is needed to drive reactions for lipoprotein synthesis
196
What does alcoholism result in?
"Alcoholic heart" and "Fatty liver," hepatocytes use free FA's to make lipoproteins; too much alcohol consumption damages hepatocytes
197
Liver cirrhosis =
accumulation of FA's and swelling of cells
198
What is Residual Body accumulation related to?
The cell's capacity to cope with potentially threatening bacteria or to deal with damaged organelles.
199
Where are residual bodies found?
They are found after a previously injury where the cell recovered but had an inability to digest all of the bacteria
200
Residual bodies are the remains of what work?
Lysosomes attempting to break down as much of the damaged cell as possible
201
What can be resistant to lysosomal enzymes?
Bacteria, which can add to residual bodies
202
Where do residual bodies have the greatest affect?
Liver, Kidney, Nervous Tissue
203
Lipofuscin aka
Lipocrone
204
What is the most common residual body?
Lipofuscin (aka Lipocrone granules)
205
What are lipocrone granules?
Parts of sub cellular membranes which are indigestible, pigment of aging "brown atrophy"
206
Hyaline changes aka
Hyalinization
207
What is Hyalinization?
Accumulation of pink glass-like protein, resembles hyaline cartilage within the cell
208
What are the 2 types of Hyaline Changes aka Hyalinization?
1) Intracellular (functional reversible)
| 2) Intercellular/Extracellular (structural irreversible)
209
What are the 4 branches of Intracellular Hyaline changes?
1) Reabsorption Droplets (w/in Renal proximal tubules)
2) Mallory Alcoholic Hyaline (aka Mallory Bodies)
3) Russel Bodies
4) Dutcher Bodies
210
What are reabsorption droplets (w/in renal proximal tubules)?
Abnormal protein loss in the urine that the tubules attempt to reabsorb (proteinuria)
211
What syndrome is reabsorption droplets associated with?
Nephritic syndrome (minimal change disease)
212
What is Nephritic Syndrome?
Minimal change disease, protein is deposited within the cells of the distal convoluted tubules, once excess protein excretion stops the cells will release the deposited protein (reversible)
213
Mallory Alcoholic Hyaline aka
Mallory Bodies
214
Where are Mallory bodies found?
Within the liver - hepatocytes (impairs their function)
215
What do Mallory bodies result from?
From overconsumption of alcohol, it's reversible with changes in drinking habits
216
What are Russell Bodies?
INTRACYTOPLASMIC accumulation of proteins in plasma cells
217
What condition would you find Russell bodies?
Multiple Myeloma
218
What is Multiple Myeloma?
Malignant condition; uncontrolled proliferation and disorder function of plasma cells in bone marrow
219
What is aka of Multiple Myeloma ?
AKA plasma cell myeloma (IgG)
220
What disease is associated with Bence Jones proteins?
Multiple Myeloma aka plasma cell myeloma (IgG)
221
What is Plasma Cell Dyscasias?
These are a group of B-cell neoplasms that have in common the expansion of single clone of immunoglobulin secreting and a resultant increase in serum levels of a single homogenous immunoglobulin ("M component") or its fragments
222
What are Monoclonal gammopathies? (tumors)
Plasma cell dyscasias is the aka. These are a group of B-cell neoplasms that have in common the expansion of single clone of immunoglobulin secreting and a resultant increase in serum levels of a single homogenous immunoglobulin ("M component") or its fragments
223
B cells (B lymphocytes) ->
Plasma cells --> antibodies/immunoglobulins
224
What are Dutcher bodies?
Intracellular (nucleus) accumulation of proteins
225
Where are dutcher bodies identified?
In monoclonal tumors
226
Dutcher bodies are associated with Waldenstrom Macroglobulinemia aka
Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma
227
What is Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma aka Waldenstrom Macroglobulinemia characterized by?
Hyper viscosity of the blood, due to overproduction of IgM antibodies
228
What is an example of hyper viscosity syndrome?
Waldenstrom Macroglobulinemia aka Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma
229
What are the 2 subcategories of Intercellular (Extracellular Accumulation)?
1) Hyaline Arteriosclerosis
| 2) Amyloidosis
230
What is Hyaline Arteriosclerosis?
Hardening of the arterioles due to hyaline (protein) accumulation
231
What does Hyaline Arteriosclerosis cause?
The arterioles to become brittle and/or obstruction of lumen occurs; can lead to obliteration
232
What can Hyaline arteriosclerosis lead to within the brain?
Lacunar infarction - thalamus putamen globus and pallidus
233
Parenchymal (intracerebral) hemorrhagic stroke is caused by _____, and what is it?
Caused by Hyaline arteriosclerosis and it is, Rupture or hardened arterioles, cases of hypertension
234
What is amyloidosis?
A generic term for a variety of proteinacceous materials that are abnormally deposited in tissue interstitium in a spectrum of clinical disorders, mainly autoimmune
235
Where are deposits of amyloidosis found?
Between cells in the interstitial fluid of the brain, liver, kidney, and skin, leading to the destruction of the cells and ultimately the tissues
236
Amyloidosis has what characteristic?
Idiopathic and pathological protein
237
What is kidney amyloidosis characterized by?
Extreme proteinuria
238
What are the 2 categories under Adaptive Responses to Cell Changes?
1) Alternative Metabolism
| 2) Altered Size
239
What happens during alternative metabolism?
Cells use alternative pathways in order to obtain ATP (preventing hydropic changes)
240
When the oxidative phosphorylation mechanism in the mitochondria of a cell is injured, the cell can use ______
An alternative metabolic pathway for the production of ATP preventing hydronic changes (accumulation of sodium and swelling of the cell due to no ATP production)
241
During alternative metabolism, if there is oxygen deficiency the cell can ______
Use the anaerobic pathway: glycolysis.
242
If glycolysis is exhausted, what else can the cell use?
Fat or protein for the production of ATP
243
What is adaptive response known as "Altered Size?"
With injury the cells size may change and therefore the organ's size will be altered (Hypertrophy or Atrophy)
244
Describe Altered size's Hypertrophy:
It is cell or organ enlargement in response to increased demands. The cell enlarges, but the number of cells stays the same.
245
What is an example of hypertrophy?
Left Ventricular Hypertrophy as a result of long term hypertension
246
What happened to create left ventricular hypertension?
The heart is working against increased resistance so it increases its size to gain more strength. This also causes an increase demand of O2 leading to damage of heart
247
What is Atrophy? In regards to Adaptive response's Altered Size?
Atrophy is cell or organ decreased size, cell shrinking due to disuse or loss of nerve or blood supply
248
What are the 2 types of Atrophies?
1) Disuse
| 2) Pressure
249
What is disuse atrophy?
"If you don't use it you lose it"
250
What is an example of disuse atrophy?
Osteoporosis from minimal load on the vertebral column and loss of skeletal mass from absence of adequate load. It's also related to hormonal imbalance
251
Osteoporosis is from _____
Prevention of osteoclastic activity
252
What are the major locations of Osteoporosis?
Ribs, Vertebral bodies, bones of hand, and neck of femur
253
What is an example of Pressure Atrophy?
Pressure in kidneys due to stone formation causes accumulation of urine and metabolites causing pressure atrophy
254
What will tests show during pressure atrophy of the kidneys?
Creatinine and urea levels are elevated due to decreased secretion leading to kidney sclerosis (hardening of the tissue) and necrosis
255
Loss of normal input (stimuli) is due to what 2 things?
1) Inadequate neurological stimulus
| 2) Inadequate hormonal stimulus
256
What is an example of inadequate neurological stimulus?
Muscle atrophy of the extremities in poliomyelitis aka polio aka infantile paralysis
257
Aka of polio?
Poliomyelitis aka infantile paralysis
258
The poliovirus enters through the mouth and invades the body, but can become systemic when entered through the blood. T/F?
TRUE
259
When the poliovirus enters through the blood and becomes systemic what happens?
It invades the Nervous System and damages the neurons at the anterior horns (motor neurons) of the spinal cord
260
What is Polio a typical example of?
Neurological impairment leading to muscle atrophy
261
What disease is associated with "Inadequate hormonal stimulus?"
Hashimoto's Thyroiditis
262
What was the first autoimmune disease discovered in 1910?
Hashimoto's Thyroiditis
263
What is Hashimoto's Thyroiditis?
It's an autoimmune disease where there is an overproduction of antibodies against the thyroid gland.
264
What do the antibodies of Hashimoto's thyroiditis do?
These antibodies block the receptors on the thyroid gland for TSH released by the pituitary gland.
265
After the antibodies block receptors on the thyroid gland for TSH, what does it cause?
Causes failure of the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones T3, T4 = HYPOTHYROIDISM
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What is the #1 cause of Hypothyroidism in the USA?
Hashimoto's Disease
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What are the symptoms of Hashimoto's disease?
- Fatigue, joint and muscular pain
- Weight gain although loss of appetite
- Pale or puffy face, feeling cold
- Dry and thin hair
- Slow heart rate and respiration rate (slow metabolism)
- Feeling sleepy and depression
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What is Grave's Disease?
Autoimmune disease affecting thyroid. The antibodies mimic the TSH, binding to the receptors of the thyroid gland and causing an overproduction of T3 and T4
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Hyperthyroidism and enlarged thyroid:
Grave's Disease
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What are the manifestations of Grave's Disease?
- Exopthalmia
- Fatigue, muscle weakness
- Weight loss with increase appetite
- Rapid heart beat: usually die from heart problems
- Anxiety and lack of sleep
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What consists of "STRUCTURAL REVERSIBLE CHANGES?"
The cells nuclear envelope is intact
1) Single Blebs
2) Loss of Ribosomes
3) Myelin Figures
4) Swelling
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What are single blebs?
Bulging of a cytoplasm of an injured cell. When we can see more than 3 is a sign of irreversible structural damage
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What are Myelin Figures?
Disruption of the cell membrane, it coils resembling the whorled pattern in the myelin formation; they appear due to separation of a cytoplasm
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What is swelling caused by?
Cell organelles due to INFLUX of water into them
275
STRUCTURAL IRREVERSIBLE CHANGES and Nucleus _____
DEAD
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What is "Several Myelin figures?"
It becomes irreversible, and it is characterized by more extensive distortions, extensive swelling of the organelles and their destruction
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When is there an increase of cell membrane permeability?
With influx of sodium, calcium, and water
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If the nucleus is damaged what does this indicate?
Cell's death
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What can Nuclear Damage be manifested by?
1) Karyolysis
2) Pyknosis
3) Karyorrhexis
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What is karyolysis?
Dissolution of nucleus within the cytoplasm
281
What is Pyknosis?
Condensation of nucleus, it's very tiny and packed
282
What is Karyorrhexis?
Fragmentation of nucleus
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When there is irreversible changes the cell dies, this =
NECROSIS
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What is Necrosis?
A condition of cell death through injury of diseases, especially in a localized area of the body
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What is the paragraph definition of Necrosis?
Cytoplasm undergoes digestion by enzymes released from lysosomes and phagocytic cells. Lysosomes of necrotic cells release lysosomal enzymes for this purpose only when the cell is lethally. Cell digestion promotes elimination of the necrotic cell and thus speeds up the healing process.
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What are the Necrosis forms?
1) Coagulative
2) Liquefactive
3) Casseous
4) Gummatous
5) Zenker's
6) Fat Necrosis (Seatonecrosis)
7) Fibrinoid
8) Gangreene
9) Apoptosis
