09 Relationships Flashcards
Outline the social exchange theory of relationships. (AO1)
- This is an economic theory of relationships
- Views relationships as a ‘business’ where you monitor the rewards (fun, gifts, attention) and the costs (emotional strain, time)
- We find people who provide a lot of rewards attractive but those perceived to involve a lot of costs are unattractive
- We aim to get as much rewards as possible out
- Relationships which are balanced in the rewards and costs of each individual are likely to succeed and imbalanced ones are likely to fail
- We compare our current partner to our previous partners and relationships (comparison level)
- We also compare to other potential partners who could provide more rewards (comparison with alternatives especially if our relationship is not satisfactory)
Evaluate the social exchange theory of relationships. (AO3)
ADV 1:
- Research evidence, Gottman (1992)
- he found that individuals in unhappy marriages frequently reported lack of positive BEHAVIOUR exchanges and an excess of negative exchanges
- For a successful marriage the ratio of pos to neg should be 5:1 and in unsuccessful marriages it is typically 1:1
ADV 2:
- There are real life applications to Integrated Couples therapy
- This aims to break negative patterns of behaviour, reduce negative exchanges and increase positive behaviour exchanges
- 66% of couples reported a significant improvement in their relationship with this therapy
DIS 1:
- Criticised for cultural bias
- The perceived rewards and costs of relationships are more applicable to individualistic cultures than collectivist
- In collectivist family values and compatibility may be more valued as rewards but in individualistic is is more common to buy expensive gifts
DIS 2:
- Social exchange theory is rooted in behaviourist approach
- Relationship maintenance is based on rewards and operant conditioning
- However, some relationships have high costs and low rewards yet they continue e.g. violetn or abusive relationships
Outline the equity theory of relationships. (AO1)
- This is an economic theory of relationships which emphasises fairness in the relationship
- Each partner must experience a balance between rewards and costs otherwise the relationship will fail
- If someone is over-benefiting, they will feel guilty and if they are under-benefiting, they will feel angry and upset
- Imbalances can still work as long as both parties are satisfied with it e.g. if one lost their job and the other has to contribute more money to the household
- An equitable relationship must have a fair ratio of rewards and costs for each party
Evaluate the equity theory of relationships. (AO3)
ADV 1:
- DeMaris (2007) studied 1500 people in a US Survey and found that when women were under-benefiting in a relationship to a high degree, the the risk of divorce was high
- This shows that equity and unequity influences satisfaction of women in relationships
ADV 2:
- In a study with monkeys they found that female monkeys became angry if they were denied a prize for playing a game with the researcher when other monkeys were receiving the prize without having to play the game
- Suggests that ideas of equity are rooted in our ancient origins
DIS 1:
- Equity theory is more applicable to individualistic cultures which focus on striking a balance between rewards and costs to maintain a relationship
- In collectivist cultures they may value family networks and values more to maintain a relationship
- Also in collectivist cultures, relationships may be successful due to cultural expectations and obligation of roles rather than rewards and costs
DIS 2:
- Criticised because it is not possible to measure equity in a loving relationship as many rewards and costs can be psychological or emotional which are difficult to quantify
- Also if we measure rewards and costs, ti may diminish the quality of love in the relationship which can be damaging
Outline Rusbult’s Investment model of relationships. (AO1)
- Rusbult extended the social exchange theory to form the investment model
- He emphasised that commitment is the key factor to sustaining a relationship
- Commitment is dependent on satisfaction, comparison with alternatives and investments
- Satisfaction is determined by the quality of alternative partners
- Investments act as a deterrent to ending a relationship
- Intrinsic investments are what you directly put into the relationship e.g. money, time, effort etc. and extrinsic are the benefits that arise out of the relationship e.g. mutual friends, house, children etc.
Evaluate Rusbult’s investment model. (AO3)
ADV 1:
- Research done with students in Taiwan and the Netherlands found that high levels of commitment were related to high level of satisfaction, low quality of alternatives and large investment size
ADV 2:
- Model explains infidelity: low level of satisfaction, high quality of alternatives
- These factors lessen the level of commitment and the present relationship is likely to terminate
- Also explains why people stay in abusive relationships: low satisfaction, low quality of alternatives and high investment size e.g. children
DIS 1:
- Criticised because you cannot measure commitment, satisfaction, investments and quality of alternatives objectively
- Rusbult responded to this with an investment model scale which measures each of the key variables in reliable and valid way
- However, in Rusbult’s research he used self-report data which brings up the issue of social desirability bias
DIS 2:
- Ignores the gender differences
- Lin found that women tend to describe their relationships with higher satisfaction levels, lower quality of alternatives and high investment size compared to men
Describe Duck’s Phase model of relationship breakdown. (AO1)
There are four phases of relationship breakdown:
1. Intra-psychic processes:
- The dissatisfied partner privately thinks about their relationships and broods over their partner’s faults and how they are under-benefiting from the relationship
- They may become depressed and withdraw from social interactions with their partner
2. Dyadic processes:
- The dissatisifed partner privately discusses their issues in the relationship with their partner
- They both consider the investments made into the relationship
- Both parties may reconcile and continue their relationship at this stage or attend marital therapy if there are difficulties
3. Social processes:
- If there is a break up it is made public to friends and family so at this stage it is difficult to make up
- Alliances are formed and some may critique their ex-partner “I never liked them from the star” or scapegoat them “it was all her fault”
4. Grave dressing processes:
- Significant duration of time after break up in post-relationship stage
- Each has to have an account of their relationship and why they broke up and typically present their partner in a negative light to maintain social credit; different versions to different people
- Partners may reinterpret their ex-partner’s behaviour or traits e.g. “They were rebellious” to “They were irresponsible”
Evaluate Duck’s phase model of relationship breakdown. (AO3)
ADV 1:
- Support comes from social exchange theory
- Duck’s model is based in social exchange theory as it states that if rewards are minimal and costs are high then the relationship with breakdown
ADV 2:
- Was devised by Duck in 1982 but in 2006 he had updated this model with another researcher named Rollie and added a fifth stage of “resurrection” where the individual engages in personal growth to prepare for their next relationship
DIS 1:
- Akert criticised this model because he believed that the role of the partner who chooses to break up or not is the most important predictor of the relationship breakdown experience:
- the initiator felt less upset or angry but more guilty
- Partner who did not initiate felt much more miserable, sad and lonely in the weeks following the break up
DIS 2:
- Ignores the gender differences in relationship breakdown experiences
- Females tend to emphasise unhappiness, lack of emotional support and incompatibility as reasons to break up but males emphasise lack of fun or sex
- Women also often wish to stay friends with their ex-partners but men usually want a clean-break from them
Briefly outline evolutionary explanation of relationships.
- Partner preferences are driven by sexual selection
- Both males and females choose partners to maximise reproductive success
- Individuals with these traits (e.g. wide hips, strength, height etc.) are more likely to survive and pass on these successful traits
- Anisogamy causes males & females to adopt distinct strategies to choose a partner.
- Men use intra-sexual selection and females use inter-sexual selection
Describe intra-sexual selection
- Members of one sex compete amongst each other for access to the other sex
- Mens best evolutionary strategy is to have as many partners as possible due to anisogamy
- Men may engage in mate-guarding (protecting mate from enaging with other males) to avoid cuckoldry (raising another mans child)
Describe inter-sexual selection.
- Members of one sex (females) choose from available prospective mates according to attractiveness
- Women’s best strategy is to be selective when choosing partner
- Seeks men who display characteristics of good physical health, high status and resources
Evaluate evolutionary explanations of partner preferences.
ADV 1: Buss (1989)
- Survey of over 10,000 adults in 33 countries
- Females reported valuing resource-based characteristics (occupation)
- Males valued good looks and preferred younger partners
ADV 2: Differences in intimacy offers
- Male and female psychology students at Florida Uni had to approach other students of the opposite sex
- Ask them varying levels of intimate questions e.g. go on a date or go to bed with them
- 50% of men and women agreed to date
- 69% of men back to apartment and 75% to bed compared to 6% of women to apartment and 0% for more intimate offer
DIS 1: Deterministic
- Little free will in partner choice
- Everyday experience tells us that we do have some choice over partner preferences
DIS 2: Socially sensitive
- Promotes traditional sexist views of male and female roles
- Women are now more career-oriented and independent so will not look for more resourceful partners
- Availability of contraception means evolutionary pressures are less relevant
Outline self-disclosure as a factor affecting attraction.
- Self-disclosure is the revealing of personal information such as thoughts, feelings and experiences to another person
- By gradually revealing emotions and experiences to each other, couples gains greater understanding and display trust
- So self-disclosure increases attraction
- As trust builds, breadth and depth of self-disclosure increases from superficial details e.g. hobbies, interests etc. to family values and difficult experiences
- Too much self-disclosure on a first date reduces attraction
- Reciprocal self-disclosure is where people expect same level of self-disclosure from their partner
Evaluate self-disclosure as a factor affecting attraction.
ADV 1: Altman & Taylor (1973):
- Self disclosure on the first data is inappropriate and did not increase attraction levels
- The person self-disclosing was seen as maladjusted and not very likeable
ADV 2: Tal-Or (2015):
- Research on self disclosure being a gradual process
- Analysis of reality TV shows like Big Brother revealed that viewers did not like contestants who self-disclosed early on
- They preferred contestants who did so gradually
ADV 3: Kito (2010):
- Self disclosure across cultures
- Self disclosure was high for Japanese and American students in romantic heterosexual relationships
DIS 1: Sprecher (2013):
- Level of self-disclosure received is a better predictor of liking and loving rather than amount of self-disclosure given
- Goes against reciprocal self-disclosure
DIS 2: Other factors
- SD is important but it is unlikely attraction is based on self-disclosure alone
- Other factors are needed to increase attraction: physical attraction, similarity of attitudes, complementarity of needs
Briefly outline physical attractiveness affecting attraction.
- Men place more importance on physical attractiveness for a female partner in the short term and long term
- Females place more importance on it only on short term partners
- What is physically attractive varies across culture and time
