05 Approaches

Question 1

Define psychology.

Answer 1

The scientific study of the mind and behaviour

Question 2

Outline introspection.

Answer 2

The first systematic and experimental attempt to study the mind and mental processes by breaking down conscious awareness into basic structures of reflections, thoughts, images and sensations

Question 3

Outline Wundt’s role in the development of psychology. (AO1)

Answer 3

• Wundt was the first person to call himself a psychologist and is known as the ‘father of psychology’
• He opened the first experimental psychology laboratory in Germany which helped shape psychology as a science using controlled conditions to facilitate the replication of results
• He devised introspection as way of studying internal mental events
• He aimed to investigate psychology in the same way as traditional sciences and believed it should emerge as one
• He used scientific methods to study introspection
• Helped psychology emerge as science and developed cognitive psychology

Question 4

Describe the Wundt’s method of introspection. (AO1)

Answer 4

• Participants were presented with various stimuli, such as visual or auditory stimuli, under controlled conditions.
• The stimuli could be simple, such as a single tone or colour, or more complex, such as a series of words or images.
• Pps. had to focus on present experiences and say everything that they are thinking of while they are doing an activity or thinking about a topic or object
• They must keep talking even if thoughts are not clear and they must not hesitate, can use fragmented sentences and don’t need to justify their thoughts
• After introspecting upon their experiences, participants were required to provide detailed verbal reports of their subjective observations.
• mental states, the content of their thoughts, and any other relevant aspects of their conscious experience.

Question 5

Evaluate introspection and emergence of psychology as a science. (AO3)

Answer 5

ADV 1:
- Psychology shares the same qualities as trad sciences
- Make predictions
- Form hypotheses
- Manipulate the IV to measure the effect on the DV
- High level of control of variables (lab study) e.g. the stimulus-response approach in classical conditioning explains how all stimuli (IV) generate a response (DV)
ADV 2:
- Still useful in psychology today
- Hunter (2003) used introspection as a method to measure happiness levels
- Group of adolescents given beepers and just before they went off at random times in the day they had to write down their thoughts and feelings
- generally more unhappy than happy
- When carrying out challenging task they were happier
- Introspection can be used as a tool to measure emotions and feelings and improve quality of life
DIS 1:
- Criticised for not being accurate
- Tells us nothing about the underlying causes and processes of our behaviours and attitudes
- We have attitudes and stereotypes even we are not aware of - some people are racist but do not know why and may behave stereotypically to other ethnic groups
- Only touches surface and not why or how we have these thoughts
DIS 2:
- Watson criticised Wundt’s introspection
- produces subjective data which varies heavily from one individual to the next
- Not objective or reliable
- We cannot prove what one’s thinking
- Watson argues that we need to observe behaviour as this is a more objective method to study humans (led to behaviourist approach)

Question 6

Outline the assumptions of the behaviourist approach.

Answer 6

• Basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species
• Concerned with observable behaviour that can be objectively and scientifically measured
• All behaviour is learned from the environment and can be reduced to stimulus-response associations

Question 7

Key terms in classical conditioning

Answer 7

• Stimulus generalisation: stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus will cause the same conditioned response e.g. bell with diff pitch
• Discrimination: stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus will NOT cause the same conditioned response (done by withholding original UCS food)
• Extinction: conditioned response is not produced when bell is rung (withholding UCS)
• Timing: If time interval between UCS and NS is too long, conditioning does not occur
• Spontaneous recovery: after extinction, if UCS and NS paired together, link is made more quickly

Question 8

Evaluate classical conditioning. (AO3)

Answer 8

ADV 1:
- Research evidence to support CC explaining acquisition of phobias
- Pavlov and dogs study; Watson & Rayner Little Albert
- CC successful in animals and young children - they make associations all the time through stimulus-response approach
ADV 2:
- Application to treatments of psychological disorders
- Flooding and SD based on the principles of CC
- Both use counter conditioning (associate fear with calmness), based on idea of reciprocal inhibition
- Both therapies are successful (Ougrin & Choy)
DIS 1:
- Pavlov and Little Albert studies conducted in a lab setting (may find diff results in other settings)
- Lacks ecological validity making findings weak
- Also Little Albert is only one participant -lacks pop validity
DIS 2:
- Doesn’t explain how adults learn new behaviours
- Adult behaviours are very complex and not always result of previous exp or conditioning - do not encounter new stimuli
- limited to explaining new behaviours only in children and animals

Question 9

Evaluate operant conditioning (AO3).

Answer 9

ADV 1
- Real life applications of operant conditioning
- Token economy systems in prisons and hospitals
act as a form of behaviour modification
- Works by rewarding certain behaviours with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges
- Supported by research in SZ to make behaviour more appropriate
ADV 2
- Skinner relied on the experimental method
- used highly controlled conditions to find the relationship between the IV and DV and establish a cause and effect relationship
- This makes the research replicable and thus reliable
DIS 1:
- Skinner believes in hard determinism and ignores free will
- People have no control over their actions as it is determined by their past experiences involving operant conditioning
- e.g. children are punished for their behaviour but still repeat it - due to free will but it is not accounted for
DIS 2:
- Ethical issues with Skinner’s box study
- Rats and pigeons in stressful aversive situations
- Negative effect on psychological and physical health against BPS ethical guidelines
- Also results from animals cannot always be generalised

Question 10

Define social learning theory.

Answer 10

New patterns of behaviour can be acquired by observing the behaviour of others and the consequences they receive of reinforcements or punishments.

Question 11

Outline 4 main points of social learning theory as part of the learning approach. (AO1)

Answer 11

1. Modelling: In order for social learning to take place we need a model to observe behaviour from; live model could be parents, teachers or peers and symbolic model could be someone in the media
2. Imitation: people acquire behaviours by copying the behaviour that is modelled
3. Identification: people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of a model who is more similar to them e.g. age, gender as they feel that as they are more similar to them, they will receive the same consequences
4. Vicarious Reinforcement: Individuals learn by observing the behaviour of others and the reward and punishment they receive. People don’t need to
   experience rewards or punishments directly in order to learn from them.

Question 12

Outline mediational processes in social learning theory. (AO1)

Answer 12

• There are cognitive factors that occur between the stimulus (observation) and response (imitation)
  1. Attention must be paid to notice behaviour of model
  2. Retention of the behaviour
  3. Motor reproduction: must be able to imitate e.g. cannot sly or shoot lasers
  4. Motivation: must be willing to perform behaviour through vicarious reinforcement

Question 13

Outline Bandura’s study.

Answer 13

• 36 boys and 36 girls ages 3-7
• 24 had to watch an adult model behave aggressively towards the BOBO doll; 24 with model that was not aggressive with doll and 24 with no model
• In both groups, they were split with a male and female model
• After exposure, they were made frustrated by withholding toys from them
• Children were taken one by one to a room with toys and a BOBO doll and observed for 20 mins
• Aggressive model = aggressive behaviour to bobo doll; others showed no aggression
• Boys imitate same sex models more than girls
• Girls were more physically aggressive with male model and verbally aggressive with female model
• Boys were more aggressive - imitation of aggression was greatest when model was same sex as observer

Question 14

Evaluate SLT. (AO3)

Answer 14

ADV 1:
- Akers (1998) found that SLT explains how criminal behaviour is learnt
- Criminals engage in more criminal behaviour when they are exposed to a model they can highly identify with
- If model receives positive outcome for action, they increase chance that observer commits crime
ADV 2:
- Less determinist than behaviourist approach
- Bandura practiced reciprocal determinism: we are not only influenced by the env but we also exert influence on it
- Element of free will e.g. we choose our model
DIS 1:
- Ignores other potential influences on behaviour
- Boys are more aggressive than girls in Banduras study
- Due to biological factors: high levels of testosterone
- SLT is reductionist as it ignores these other factors
DIS 2:
- Bandura used a lab study
- Prone to show demand characteristics - children may just act in the way they believe are expected to
- Only accounts for how children acquire behaviours, not adults
- lacks ecological validity doesn’t explain how they learn behaviours in real life

Question 15

Outline the study of internal mental processes as a feature of cognitive approach. (AO1)

Answer 15

• Internal mental processes can be studied scientifically
• Cognitive approach has studied areas of behaviour that are ignored by behaviourists e.g. memory, perception and thinking
• Internal mental processes are the operations that occur during thinking e.g. info from eyes into usable form (perception) and how we choose what to think about (attention)
• Inferences are used to study these processes - cognitive model makes assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed and goes beyond research evidence
• Direct observation of internal cognitive processes is not possible as results have to be inferred from behaviour/data

Question 16

Outline theoretical and computer models as a feature of cognitive approach. (AO1)

Answer 16

1. Information processing approach: suggests information flows through cognitive system in sequences of stages that include input, storage and retrieval such as in the MSM (models are pictorial in nature repped by arrows and boxes)
2. Computer analogy: mind is compared to a computer, CPU = brain, concept of coding (turning info into useable format) and ‘stores’ to hold information; Model is useful in development of AI and thinking machines

Question 17

Outline the role of schemas

Answer 17

• Schemas are packets of information that are developed through experience
• Act as mental framework for the interpretation of new incoming information
• e.g. schemas for chair helps respond to object appropriately
• Babies are born with a simple motor schema for innate behaviours of sucking and grasping
• As we get older chemas become more detailed and sophisticated
• Prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli

Question 18

Outline cognitive neuroscience as a feature of the cognitive approach. (AO1)

Answer 18

• Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
• Involves mapping brain areas to specific functions e.g. damage in Broca’s area in the frontal lobe is linked to impaired speech production
• Maguire (2000) larger right posterior hippocampus, MRI scans, useful to help people with navigational skills

Question 19

Evaluate cognitive approach in psychology. (AO3)

Answer 19

ADV 1:
- Scientific and objective methods
- Uses highly controlled and rigorous methods to be able to infer cognitive processes from the data and results
- Involves use of lab experiments to produce reliable, objective data and cognitive neuroscience is the combination of biology and cognitive neuroscience
- This establishes a credible scientific basis
ADV 2:
- Real life applications
- cognitive is most dominant approach and applied to wide range of practical and theoretical contexts
- Computer analogy made important contribution to AI and thinking machines

DIS 1:
- Machine reductionism
- The computer analogy is criticised because it ignores the influence of motivation and emotions on the cognitive system
- it is found that anxiety has an influence on eyewitness testimonies
DIS 2:
- Cognitive approach lacks ecological validity
- Too theoretical and abstract in nature as we can only infer cognitive processes from observable behaviour
- uses lab conditions so not applicable to everyday life
- e.g. Peterson & Peterson nonsense trigrams

Question 20

Define the biological approach.

Answer 20

Approach concerned with the influence of genes, biological structures and neurochemistry on behaviour

Question 21

What are the basic assumptions of biological approach?

Answer 21

Suggests that everything psychological begins on a biological basis so to understand behaviour we need to look at biological structures and processes within the body such as genes, neurochemistry and the nervous system.

Question 22

Outline the influence of genes on behaviour as part of the biological approach. (AO1)

Answer 22

• Heredity is the passing of genes from one generation to the next through our genes, hence why offspring may have similar psychological traits to their parents
• Twin studies are used to evaluate whether a particular trait or behaviour is due to genes or the environment; if MZ twins have a higher concordance rate than DZ then there is a genetic basis
• Genotype is the actual genetic makeup
• Phenotype is the way the genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics thus it’s influenced by the environment
• e.g. adult twins with dyed hair, exercise (slim)

Question 23

Outline the influence of evolution on behaviour in the biological approach. (AO1)

Answer 23

• Darwin proposed the theory of natural selection
• The main principle of this is that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival and reproduction will continue in future generations
• Evolution is the process of slight adaptations to the features of an organism that occurs over many generations

Question 24

Describe the influence of neurochemistry on behaviour. (AO1)

Answer 24

• Focuses on neurotransmitters
• Serotonin is implicated in a range of behaviours: sleep, memory, emotions, appetite and social and sexual behaviours
• Psychoactive drugs like cocaine block the reuptake of dopamine back into the pre-snap tic gap which leads to the ‘rush of euphoria’ felt by cocaine users
• Distribution to neurochemistry is implicated in OCD: serotonin prevents repetition of tasks so lack of it results in constant repetition of tasks in OCD - SSRIs are a common treatment for this

Question 25

Outline the influence of brain structures on our behaviour in the biological approach. (AO1)

Answer 25

- important aspect of biological approach is mapping various parts of the brain with their specific functions - Phineas Gage; a metal bar passed through his skull and brain; survived with little intellectual impairment, functioning was relatively normal but he became quick-tempered and foul-mouthed - Damage occurred to his frontal lobes which suggests this structure is implicated in control of impulsive behaviours - Modern PETs of violent criminals found less activity in this area - HM epilepsy and hippocampus; severe amnesia

Question 26

Evaluate the biological approach in psychology. (AO3)

Answer 26

**ADV 1:** - Uses scientific methods of investigation - Uses family, twin and adoption studies and fMRIs to study parts of the brain and EEGs to study brain waves - Drug therapies are used and are focused on biological symptoms - everything in biological approach can be measured scientifically and not open to bias, hence objective and reliable **ADV 2:** - Real life applications for treatments - Understanding biochemical processes led to development of psychoactive drugs that treat serious mental disorders - Depression treated through SSRIs which alter levels of neurotransmitters serotonin - Schizophrenia with anti-psychotic drugs - Treatments are non-disruptive to the patient’s life without extensive hospital treatment **DIS 1:** - Issues with determining cause and effect - unclear if low serotonin levels cause depression or if it is a symptom of depression - We can only assume a relationship not cause and effect - Medication may only treat the surface level of the condition and its symptoms not the root cause of the condition - Patientd may be more prone to relapse with biological treatments once they stop taking the medication **DIS 2:** - Biologically determinist and reductionist - Sees that human behaviour is governed by internal biological factors they have no control over - Doesn’t align with our legal system - Makes it difficult to take and accept responsibility for our actions which doesn’t work in a court of law

Question 27

Outline the role of the unconscious in the psychodynamic approach. (AO1)

Answer 27

- Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious - The unconscious is a storehouse of biological drives and instincts that has a significant influence on on our behaviour and personality - It also contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed, locked away or forgotten - The unconscious protects the conscious from these unpleasant memories - Under the surface of our conscious is the pre conscious which includes thoughts and ideas we are aware of in our dreams or brought slips of tongue/paraphraxes

Question 28

Describe what drives are in the psychodynamic approach. (AO1)

Answer 28

- Sex and aggression are the two basic drives we are born with - They motivate all of our thoughts and behaviours - Eros and Thanatos - Eros represents the life instinct and has its own source of psychic energy - libido - Thanatos is the death instinct - These drives allow us to procreate while eliminating our enemies who may prevent us to do so

Question 29

Describe the structure of the personality according to the psychodynamic approach. (AO1)

Answer 29

The dynamic interaction between the id, ego and superego (each contending for as much libidinal energy) dictates our personality 1. ID allows us to get our basic needs met; based on pleasure principle and wants immediate satisfaction with no regard for reality of situation (18 months) 2. Ego meets the needs of the id while taking the constraints of reality into account; based on reality principle (3 years) 3. Superego suppresses the biological instincts of the id resulting in high level of guilt; develops in phallic stage based on moral constraints place by our parents; based on morality principle (6 years)

Question 30

Describe defence mechanisms. (AO1)

Answer 30

The ego employs defense mechanisms to help satisfy both the id and superego 1. **Displacement:** Diverting your emotions onto someone or something else because the emotions cannot be expressed to the persons concerned or because accepting faults in ourselves induces anxiety 2. **Repression:** preventing undesirable desires, motivations or emotions from becoming conscious - they lie in the unconscious where they influence behaviour unknowingly (may cause emotional difficulties) 3. **Denial:** Refusing to believe events or admit they are experiencing certain emotions that provoke anxiety

Question 31

Describe the psychosexual stages as outlined in the psychodynamic approach. (AO1)

Answer 31

1. **Oral stage** - 0-1 years - Mouth is primary focus of libidinal energy 2. **Anal stage** - 1-3 years - Focus of pleasure is expelling and retaining faeces - Represents conflict between id and ego - id = pleasure from expelling bodily wastes - ego = external pressures to control bodily functions 3. **Phallic stage** - 3-5 years - Boys develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother and become rivals with their father - Develop fear that father with punish them (castration anxiety) so identify with father instead of fight with him - They develop masculine traits and suppress sexual feelings for their mother 4. **Latency** - Period in which sexual drive lies dormant - Girls become more feminine and boys more masculine - Period of unparalleled repression of sexual desires and erogenous impulses 5. **Genital stage** - Sexual urges awaken again - Less energy invested in unresolved conflicts in earlier stages, the greater the capacity to form normal heterosexual relationships

Question 32

State the characteristics of the adult personality when fixated for each stage of psychosexual development. (AO1)

Answer 32

1. **Oral** - FRUSTRATION: pessimism, envy, suspicion (oral aggressive) - OVERINDULGENCE: optimistic, gullible, admiration for others (orally receptive) - oral personality = smoking/drinking 2. **Anal** - FRUSTRATION: thoughtless, defiant and - disorganised (anal expulsive) - OVERINDULGENCE: neat, perfectionist obstinate (anal retentive) - Fixation occurs if parents are too lenient in conflict of expelling (id) or retaining faeces (ego) or if child opts to retain faeces to spite parents 3. **Phallic** - Narcissistic or reckless in behaviour 5. **Genital:** OVERINDULGENCE - Struggling to form heterosexual relationships

Question 33

Evaluate the psychodynamic approach. (AO3)

Answer 33

**ADV 1:** - Uses case study method to gather evidence case studies are rich in detail and allow us to develop theories further with qualitative data - Little Hans' case study and his phobia supports the phallic stage of psychosexual development **ADV 2:** - Created psychoanalysis - deep and meaningful therapy for neurosis - Therapists try to understand the underlying causes of disorders through dream analysis and hypnosis - Tschuschke et el found psychoanalysis to be very successful in treating disorders compared to others **DIS 1:** - Lacks falsifiability as you cannot prove it wrong - prevents theory from being scientific as there's little evidence to support his theory - e.g. denial and Oedipus complex **DIS 2:** - Psychic determinism - All human behaviour is caused by unconscious instincts and biological drives and influenced by our past childhood experiences - No such thing as accident - even slips of tongue have hidden meaning that is driven by an unconscious force we have no control over

Question 34

Describe Maslow's Hierarchy of needs. (AO1)

Answer 34

Human needs exist in a hierarchy with basic needs at the bottom and higher order needs at the top and you cannot progress up before meeting the previous need. First four = deficiency needs, last = being need 1. **Physiological needs:** those required for human survival e.g. food, water and sleep 2. **Safety needs:** physical safety from environmental disasters and psychological safety 3. **Love and Belongingness: ** form of acceptance from family, friends or partners 4. **Esteem needs:** need to feel good about one's self, establishes sense of competence and achievement at work, school or as a person e.g. someone made redundant would experience threat to esteem needs 5. **Self-actualisation:** defined subjectively, peak experiences characterised by feelings of euphoria, seeing the world in awe and wonder without inhibitions, thinking outside the box spontaneously and creatively, work-joy dichotomy disappears

Question 35

Define the self, congruence, unconditional positive regard and conditions of worth. (AO1)

Answer 35

The self = concept of how you percieve yourself and how much self-worth you think you have Congruence = the consistency between teh percieved self or actual self and the ideal self Unconditional positive regard = when others love and individual unconditionally without imposing conditions of worth Conditions of worth = when others impose conditions on individuals in what to do or how to behave to love and accept the - they begin to impose COW on themselves too

Question 36

Outline how conditions of worth and in congruence influence behaviour. (AO1)

Answer 36

- In a state of incongruence, self-actualisation is not possible due to negative feelings of self-worth that arise from incongruence - Client-centred therapy is used to reduce gap between actual and ideal self and to help people cope with problems of everyday living - Low self-esteem is due to lack of unconditional positive regard - Parents imposing conditions of worth on their child is storing up psychological problems for them in the future

Question 37

What is the role of client-centred therapy in the humanistic approach? (AO1)

Answer 37

- To reduce gap of incongruence - Allow indiivudal to recognise psychological limits and their strengths and achieve a realistic balance between them - Provides deeper understanding of themselves - Therapists provide UPR by expressing acceptance, empathy and understanding of their condition Therapists must have: 1. empathetic understanding 2. UPR without conditions of worth 3. Congruent therapist in touch with their feelings

Question 38

Evaluate humanistic approach in psychology. (AO3)

Answer 38

**ADV 1:** - not reductionist as it considers the individual's whole human experience - practices holism so more validity than psychodynamic or behvaiourist by considering meaningful human behaviour in its real life context **ADV 2:** - Harter et al (1996) - teenagers who feel like they have to fulfil certain conditions to earn parent's approval freq. end up not liking themselves - teens who create a 'false self' also are more likely to develop depression (tend to lose touch with true self) **DIS 1:** - Untestable concepts problematic to assess under experimental conditions - abstract, vague, too subjective, anti-scientific - Lacks empirical evidence to support claims makes it a loose set of concepts **DIS 2:** - Cultural bias - freedom, autonomy and personal growth are associated with individualistic cultures - collectivist cultures emphasis community, the needs of the group and interdependence - They wouldn't easily identify with this approach - Western-centred cultural bias