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08_Digestive System 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is oral thrush?

A

A fungal infection of the mouth which is a sign of low immunity and not contagious.

Caused by Candida albicans, often seen in immunocompromised individuals.

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2
Q

What are the causes of oral thrush?

A
  • Candida albicans
  • Broad-spectrum antibiotics
  • Immune suppressant drugs
  • Nutritional deficiencies (iron, zinc, vit. B12)

These factors compromise the immune system, allowing fungal growth.

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3
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of oral thrush?

A
  • White patches on oral mucosa
  • Red/raw appearance to underlying tissue
  • Loss of taste or unpleasant taste

The patches can be wiped or brushed off.

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4
Q

What is the allopathic treatment for oral thrush?

A

Antifungals (often harmful and toxic).

Allopathic treatments may have side effects.

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5
Q

What are natural treatments for oral thrush?

A
  • Address cause
  • Anti-fungals (caprylic acid, oregano oil, garlic, apple cider vinegar, grapefruit seed extract)
  • Probiotics
  • Eliminate refined and simple sugars

Natural remedies focus on restoring balance and supporting the immune system.

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6
Q

What are mouth ulcers?

A

Areas of ulceration within the oral cavity that are generally painful.

These ulcers result from loss of the mucosal layer.

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7
Q

What are the causes of mouth ulcers?

A
  • Physical trauma
  • Hot food/liquids
  • Nutritional deficiencies (iron, zinc, folate, vitamin B12)
  • Stress
  • GIT pathologies (e.g., Crohn’s disease)

Stress can lead to poor mucosal blood flow.

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8
Q

What is the treatment for mouth ulcers?

A

Treat the cause, correct nutritional status, improve immunity, probiotics, homeopathy.

Addressing underlying issues is crucial for healing.

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9
Q

What are cold sores?

A

A viral infection that lies dormant and activates when immunity is low.

The herpes simplex virus (normally Type I) causes cold sores.

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10
Q

What triggers cold sores?

A
  • Stress
  • Steroid use
  • Trauma
  • Local infections
  • Sunlight exposure

These triggers can lead to reactivation of the virus.

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11
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of cold sores?

A
  • Tingling, itching, burning sensation around the mouth
  • Small fluid-filled sores on the lower lip

These symptoms indicate an impending outbreak.

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12
Q

What is the allopathic treatment for cold sores?

A

Antiviral creams (acyclovir).

These creams help to reduce the severity of symptoms.

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13
Q

What are natural treatments for cold sores?

A
  • Antivirals (lemon balm, elderberry, colloidal silver, propolis, L-lysine)
  • Immune support (vitamin C, zinc, echinacea)
  • Homeopathy (e.g., Nat mur)
  • Acupuncture

Natural treatments focus on boosting the immune system and alleviating symptoms.

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14
Q

What is an abscess?

A

A localized pocket of pus surrounded by inflammation.

It occurs as a defensive reaction of the tissue to prevent the spread of infection.

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15
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of an abscess?

A
  • Pain
  • Redness
  • Local swelling
  • Fever
  • Malaise

These symptoms indicate a bacterial infection, commonly affecting the oral cavity and intestines.

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16
Q

What is the treatment for an abscess?

A
  • Antibiotics
  • Drainage
  • Gargles in the mouth
  • Herbs (liquorice, golden seal)
  • Nutrients (zinc, vitamin C)
  • Immune support with herbs
  • Homeopathy
  • Colloidal silver

Treatment varies based on the location of the abscess.

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17
Q

What is gingivitis?

A

A bacterial infection of the gums.

If untreated, it may progress to periodontal disease.

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18
Q

What are the symptoms of gingivitis?

A
  • Bleeding gums
  • Receding gums

These symptoms are indicative of inflammation in the gums.

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19
Q

What causes gingivitis?

A
  • Plaque build-up
  • Poor dental hygiene
  • Dental amalgams
  • Long-term steroid medication use
  • Diabetes mellitus
  • Smoking
  • Poor nutrition

These factors contribute to the development of gum disease.

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20
Q

What is angular stomatitis?

A

Fissuring and dry scaling of the surface of the lips and angles of the mouth.

It is commonly seen in the elderly and those immunocompromised.

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21
Q

What are the causes of angular stomatitis?

A
  • Vitamin B deficiencies (Riboflavin, folic acid)
  • Iron deficiency
  • Candida albicans
  • Staphylococcus

Nutritional deficiencies and infections can lead to this condition.

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22
Q

What is xerostomia?

A

Dry mouth due to reduced/absent flow of saliva.

A common complaint in the elderly.

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23
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of xerostomia?

A
  • Dry mouth
  • Burning sensation
  • Halitosis
  • Speech and swallowing interference

These symptoms significantly affect quality of life.

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24
Q

What are the complications of xerostomia?

A
  • Candidiasis
  • Gingivitis
  • Tonsillitis
  • Pharyngitis

A lack of saliva can lead to various oral infections.

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25
Q

What causes xerostomia?

A
  • Drugs (e.g., antidepressants)
  • Sjögren’s syndrome
  • Stress
  • Anxiety
  • Dehydration
  • Renal failure
  • Menopause
  • Alcohol
  • Smoking
  • Radiotherapy

Various factors can lead to reduced saliva production.

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26
Q

What is a cleft lip?

A

Malformation of the lip in embryonic development.

It can be unilateral or bilateral, complete or incomplete.

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27
Q

What are the causes of cleft lip and palate?

A
  • Genetic defects
  • Environmental factors (maternal disease, dietary factors)
  • Teratogens (chemotherapy, radiation, alcohol, excess vitamin A, anticonvulsant medications, smoking, substance abuse)

These factors can lead to malformations during embryonic development.

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28
Q

What is oral cancer?

A

Carcinoma of the oral mucosa, lip or tongue.

Accounts for one in 50 of all cancer cases.

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29
Q

What are the causes of oral cancer?

A
  • Smoking
  • Alcohol
  • HPV infection

These are significant risk factors for developing oral cancer.

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30
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of oral cancer?

A
  • Red or white patches on oral mucosa or tongue
  • Difficulty eating and breathing

Early detection is crucial for better outcomes.

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31
Q

What is the treatment for oral cancer?

A
  • Allopathic: Surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy
  • Natural: Herbs, nutritional supplements, diet (plant-based and antioxidants)

A combined approach may improve patient outcomes.

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32
Q

What are salivary calculi?

A

Metabolic imbalance affecting mineral concentration resulting in stone formation in salivary glands.

These stones can cause inflammation and blockage.

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33
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of salivary calculi?

A
  • Intermittent pain and swelling of affected gland, particularly when eating
  • May be a palpable mass

Symptoms often worsen during mealtime.

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34
Q

What is gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD)?

A

The lower oesophageal sphincter relaxes and acid regurgitates from the stomach into the oesophagus.

This condition can lead to significant discomfort.

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35
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of GORD?

A
  • Retrosternal pain (heartburn)
  • Belching

Symptoms can mimic cardiac pathology.

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36
Q

What are the causes of GORD?

A
  • Obesity
  • Hiatus hernia
  • Pregnancy
  • Trigger foods (spicy, fatty foods, alcohol, caffeine)
  • Stress

Lifestyle factors significantly influence the severity of GORD.

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37
Q

What are the complications of GORD?

A
  • Damage to oesophageal mucosa
  • Increased risk of ulcers
  • Barrett’s oesophagus
  • Cancer

Chronic GORD can lead to severe outcomes if untreated.

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38
Q

What is the allopathic treatment for GORD?

A

Antacids (some contain aluminium).

These medications can provide symptomatic relief.

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39
Q

What are the natural treatments for GORD?

A
  • Treat the cause
  • Baking soda (no aluminium)
  • Eating smaller, more frequent meals
  • Weight loss
  • Diet modifications
  • Aloe vera, slippery elm after meals

Natural approaches aim to alleviate symptoms and promote healing.

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40
Q

What is a hiatus hernia?

A

Part of the stomach protrudes into the thoracic cavity through an opening in the diaphragm.

It is common in people over 50.

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41
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of hiatus hernia?

A

Often asymptomatic or presents as GORD.

Many individuals are unaware they have a hiatus hernia.

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42
Q

What are the causes of hiatus hernia?

A
  • Increased abdominal pressure (heavy lifting, coughing, pregnancy, childbirth)
  • Heredity
  • Smoking
  • Drug abuse
  • Stress

Various factors contribute to the development of a hiatus hernia.

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43
Q

What are the complications of hiatus hernia?

A

Can cause gastro-oesophageal reflux disease (GORD).

Management is crucial to prevent further complications.

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44
Q

What is oesophageal cancer?

A

A common aggressive tumour with a poor prognosis.

Early detection is critical for treatment success.

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45
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of oesophageal cancer?

A
  • Few early symptoms
  • Later obstruction may occur
  • Dysphagia (difficulty swallowing)
  • Anorexia and melaena (black tarry stools)

Dysphagia is a red flag symptom.

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46
Q

What are the causes and risk factors of oesophageal cancer?

A
  • Chronic irritation
  • Alcohol
  • Smoking
  • GORD
  • Barrett’s oesophagus
  • Obesity
  • Low fruit and vegetable diet
  • Age

Multiple lifestyle factors can increase risk.

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47
Q

What is acute gastritis?

A

Acute inflammation of the stomach mucosa causing breakdown of the stomach lining.

Insufficient mucus production leads to erosion.

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48
Q

What are the causes of acute gastritis?

A
  • Helicobacter pylori
  • NSAIDs
  • Alcohol
  • Food poisoning
  • Stress

These factors can lead to acute inflammation.

49
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of acute gastritis?

A
  • Epigastric pain (worse with food)
  • Nausea/vomiting
  • Loss of appetite

Symptoms can be severe and require prompt treatment.

50
Q

What is chronic gastritis?

A

Chronic stomach mucosal inflammation lasting more than four–six weeks.

Characterized by prolonged low-grade inflammation.

51
Q

What are the causes of chronic gastritis?

A
  • Autoimmune
  • Bacterial (H. pylori)
  • Chronic irritation (e.g., long-term NSAIDs)

Different underlying issues can lead to chronic inflammation.

52
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of chronic gastritis?

A
  • Few symptoms
  • Epigastric discomfort
  • Nausea
  • Poor appetite

Symptoms may be subtle but can lead to serious complications.

53
Q

What are the complications of chronic gastritis?

A
  • Anaemia (megaloblastic, iron, pernicious)
  • Gastric carcinoma

Chronic inflammation can lead to significant health issues.

54
Q

What is a peptic ulcer?

A

Ulcer of the GI mucosa (stomach, duodenum).

Tissue erosion can vary in depth.

55
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of a peptic ulcer?

A
  • Gastric pain (30–60 mins after eating)
  • Duodenal pain (2-3 hours after eating and at night)
  • Pain when stomach is empty
  • Burping, nausea

Symptoms can vary based on the location of the ulcer.

56
Q

What are the causes of peptic ulcers?

A
  • Helicobacter pylori (80%)
  • NSAIDs (10%)
  • Stress
  • Chronic gastritis

Addressing these causes is essential for treatment.

57
Q

What is dumping syndrome?

A

Loss of control of gastric emptying, leading to the duodenum being filled with undigested food.

This condition causes sudden and urgent diarrhea.

58
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of dumping syndrome?

A
  • Early dumping (nausea, vomiting, bloating, cramping)

Symptoms occur shortly after meals.

59
Q

What causes reactive hypoglycaemia?

A

Presence of carbohydrates leading to elevated serum glucose and excessive insulin release from the pancreas.

60
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of early dumping syndrome?

A
  • Nausea
  • Vomiting
  • Bloating
  • Cramping
  • Diarrhoea
  • Dizziness
  • Fatigue
61
Q

What is the second highest cause of cancer-related death in the world?

A

Gastric cancer

62
Q

What are common causes and risk factors for gastric cancer?

A
  • Male
  • Smoking
  • Age (55 yrs+)
  • H. pylori infection
  • Diet rich in salted, pickled, and smoked foods
  • Low fruit and vegetable diet
63
Q

What are the early stage symptoms of gastric cancer?

A
  • Persistent indigestion
  • Frequent burping
  • Heartburn
  • Feeling full quickly
  • Bloating
  • Abdominal discomfort
64
Q

What is appendicitis?

A

Inflammation of the appendix.

65
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of appendicitis?

A
  • Umbilical pain that may come and go
  • Pain in the right iliac fossa
  • Rebound tenderness at McBurney’s Point
  • Pallor
  • Sweating
  • Fever
  • Nausea
  • Vomiting
  • Diarrhoea
66
Q

What is dysentery?

A

An infection of the intestines that causes diarrhoea containing blood or mucus.

67
Q

What are the common causes of dysentery?

A
  • Bacterial (shigella)
  • Amoebic via faeco-oral contamination
68
Q

What are the symptoms of Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO)?

A
  • Bloating
  • Flatulence
  • Belching
  • Loss of appetite
  • Diarrhoea or constipation
69
Q

What two diseases are classified under Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)?

A
  • Ulcerative colitis
  • Crohn’s disease
70
Q

What are the complications associated with Inflammatory Bowel Disease?

A
  • Malnutrition
  • Strictures
  • Fistulas
  • Fissures
  • Abscesses
  • Toxic megacolon
  • Increased risk of colorectal cancer
71
Q

What is coeliac disease?

A

An autoimmune condition where the immune system attacks the mucosa tissue in the small intestine in response to gluten ingestion.

72
Q

What are classic gastrointestinal signs of coeliac disease?

A
  • Chronic diarrhoea/constipation
  • Pale, foul-smelling stools
  • Steatorrhoea
  • Bloating
  • Flatulence
  • Abdominal pain
  • Weight loss
73
Q

What is diverticulosis?

A

The presence of pea-sized pouches (diverticula) in the colon, usually asymptomatic.

74
Q

What are the symptoms of diverticulitis?

A
  • Bloating
  • Abdominal pain
  • Diarrhoea
  • Fever
  • Chills
75
Q

What is a hernia?

A

An internal part of the body pushes through a weakness in the muscle or surrounding tissue wall.

76
Q

What are the common types of hernias?

A
  • Inguinal hernia
  • Hiatus hernia
  • Incisional hernia
77
Q

What are colonic polyps?

A

Benign epithelial growths of colonic mucosa.

78
Q

What is the treatment for appendicitis?

A
  • Surgery (appendectomy)
  • Antibiotics
79
Q

What is the major complication of untreated diverticulitis?

A

Rupture leading to peritonitis.

80
Q

What is the primary dietary treatment for coeliac disease?

A

Gluten-free diet.

81
Q

True or False: Inflammatory Bowel Disease can lead to increased risk of colorectal cancer.

82
Q

Fill in the blank: The immune system mistakenly identifies parts of _______ as foreign in coeliac disease.

83
Q

What are the symptoms of a hernia?

A

• Swelling or lump in the groin.
• Pain may be noticeable with strain and disappears when lying down.
• Strangulation may lead to necrosis.

Necrosis refers to the death of tissue due to loss of blood supply or bowel obstruction.

84
Q

What is the treatment for a hernia if no strangulation occurs?

A

It often resolves within a few years or may require surgery.

85
Q

What is the primary diagnostic tool for colonic polyps?

A

Colonoscopy.

86
Q

What is the risk of colonic polyps becoming malignant?

A

Less than 1% become malignant.

87
Q

What is colorectal cancer?

A

A malignant tumour that is locally invasive.

88
Q

What are common signs and symptoms of colorectal cancer?

A

• Fluctuating bowel habits (constipation/diarrhoea)
• Blood (and mucus) in stools
• Abdominal pain.

89
Q

What are the major causes of colorectal cancer?

A

• Diet high in meat
• Low fibre
• Lack of vitamin D
• Polyps
• Family history.

90
Q

What investigations are used for colorectal cancer?

A

• Colonoscopy and biopsy
• Stool analysis (occult blood and M2PK)
• Blood test (CEA, inflammatory markers, low Hb).

91
Q

What is acute pancreatitis?

A

Acute inflammation of the pancreas, considered a medical emergency.

92
Q

What are the signs and symptoms of acute pancreatitis?

A

• Sudden extreme epigastric/periumbilical pain
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Diarrhoea
• Fever.

93
Q

What causes acute pancreatitis?

A

• Alcohol abuse
• Gallstones
• Cancer.

94
Q

How is acute pancreatitis diagnosed?

A

Serum amylase (3x normal level) and lipase; increased blood glucose.

95
Q

What is chronic pancreatitis?

A

Chronic inflammation of the pancreas leading to permanent tissue changes.

96
Q

What are the symptoms of chronic pancreatitis?

A

• Repeated abdominal pain
• Fatty, foul-smelling stools.

97
Q

What are the major causes of chronic pancreatitis?

A

• Long-term alcohol abuse (60%)
• Autoimmune pancreatitis
• Pancreatic duct obstruction
• Cystic fibrosis complications.

98
Q

What complications can arise from chronic pancreatitis?

A

• Diabetes mellitus
• Pancreatic cancer
• Weight loss
• Malnutrition.

99
Q

What is pancreatic cancer?

A

A common cancer in older people, usually arising from exocrine cells.

100
Q

What are the symptoms of pancreatic cancer?

A

• Asymptomatic early
• Epigastric pain radiating to the back
• Unexplained weight loss
• Jaundice
• Post-prandial nausea.

101
Q

What is the prognosis of pancreatic cancer?

A

It has a poor prognosis, with approximately 60% metastatic at diagnosis.

102
Q

What are the treatment options for pancreatic cancer?

A

• Surgery
• Chemotherapy
• Radiotherapy.

103
Q

What are gallstones?

A

One or more stones in the gallbladder, usually made of cholesterol.

104
Q

What are the symptoms of gallstones?

A

• 70% asymptomatic at diagnosis
• Biliary colic
• Abdominal pain
• Jaundice.

105
Q

What are the risk factors for developing gallstones?

A

• 5Fs (fat, female, forty, fair, fertile)
• Pregnancy
• Obesity
• Rapid weight loss.

106
Q

What is enterobiasis (pinworm)?

A

A parasitic helminth infection with a lifespan of approximately two months.

107
Q

What are common symptoms of enterobiasis?

A

• Intense itching around the anus
• Insomnia
• Loss of appetite.

108
Q

What is the main host for Toxoplasmosis?

A

Cats are the main host for the parasite.

109
Q

What are the health risks associated with Toxoplasmosis during pregnancy?

A

Miscarriage, stillbirth, and rarely birth defects.

110
Q

What is the treatment for Toxoplasmosis?

A

Only requires treatment if pregnant or immunocompromised.

111
Q

What dietary changes are suggested for managing Crohn’s Disease?

A

• Low FODMAP diet
• Eliminate gluten and dairy
• Include skinless oily fish.

112
Q

What supplements are recommended for Crohn’s Disease management?

A

• High EPA Fish oil
• Quercetin
• Curcumin
• Vitamin D.

113
Q

What is the outcome measure in the case study for Crohn’s Disease?

A

No anaemia, stable vitamin D levels, normal calprotectin.

114
Q

What is liver cirrhosis?

A

Irreversible scarring of liver tissue due to long-term damage.

115
Q

What are the main causes of liver cirrhosis?

A

• Alcoholic liver disease
• Hepatitis B/C
• Bile obstruction.

116
Q

What are common symptoms of liver cirrhosis?

A

• Jaundice
• Fatigue
• Itchy skin.

117
Q

What are the complications of liver cancer?

A

• Jaundice
• Ascites
• Hepatomegaly.

118
Q

What is the primary treatment for liver cancer?

A

Surgery or liver transplant.

Biomedicine (10 decks)

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