06_Cardiovascular System 2 Flashcards
What are the two types of circulation in the body?
Systemic circulation and pulmonary circulation
Systemic circulation distributes blood from the heart around the body, while pulmonary circulation carries blood from the heart to the lungs and back.
What are the three main types of blood vessels?
Arteries, veins, and capillaries
Smaller arteries are called arterioles, and smaller veins are called venules.
What is the main function of capillaries?
Specialize in the exchange of substances between blood and cells/tissues.
What type of blood do arteries carry?
Oxygenated blood (with exceptions: pulmonary and umbilical arteries).
What type of blood do veins carry?
Deoxygenated blood (with exceptions: pulmonary and umbilical veins).
What are the three layers of blood vessel walls?
Tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa.
What is the role of the tunica media?
Controls blood vessel diameter.
What is the composition of capillaries?
Only endothelium.
What percentage of blood is found in systemic veins/venules?
64%.
What is the hepatic first pass?
Venous blood passes from the digestive tract, spleen, and pancreas directly to the liver.
What influences vasoconstriction and vasodilation?
The autonomic nervous system.
What is the average mass of the heart in females?
250 g.
What is the average mass of the heart in males?
300 g.
Name the four chambers of the heart.
Right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, left ventricle.
What is the function of the sinoatrial node (SA node)?
Sets rate and rhythm of the heart.
What does the atrioventricular node (AV node) do?
Conducts impulses at a slower rate to allow atrial contraction.
What is the function of the myocardium?
Pumps blood out of the heart.
What is cardiac output?
The volume of blood being pumped out by the heart per minute.
What is the average cardiac output?
5 L per minute.
What happens during systole?
The heart contracts to drive blood out.
What happens during diastole?
The heart relaxes and fills with blood.
What is tachycardia?
Resting heart rate over 100 bpm.
What is bradycardia?
Resting heart rate under 60 bpm.
What are the layers of the heart wall?
Endocardium, myocardium, pericardium.
What is the primary fuel for cardiac muscle?
Fatty acids (50-70%), followed by glucose (30%).
What is the role of the coronary arteries?
Supply oxygenated blood to the myocardium.
What is the structure of capillaries that aids in the exchange of substances?
Thin walls allow easier passing of substances.
What is the function of valves in veins?
Prevent backflow of blood.
What is the apex of the heart formed by?
The left ventricle.
What is the Foramen ovale?
A depression that shunted blood from the right atrium to the left atrium in fetal development.
What does the ductus arteriosus do?
Shunts blood from the pulmonary trunk to the aorta during fetal life.
What factors influence heart rate and strength?
Hormones, age, sex, body position, exercise, stress, and temperature.
What is diastole?
Period of relaxation when the heart fills with blood
What is tachycardia?
Resting heart rate over 100 bpm
What is bradycardia?
Resting heart rate under 60 bpm
What does the term ‘systole’ refer to?
The contraction phase of the heart
Define blood pressure.
The pressure exerted by circulating blood on the blood vessel walls
What is the normal range for blood pressure according to NHS?
90/60–140/90 mmHg
What effect does vasoconstriction have on blood pressure?
Increases blood pressure
What effect does vasodilation have on blood pressure?
Lowers blood pressure
What is the primary function of cholesterol?
Cell membrane integrity, vitamin D metabolism, sex hormone production
How is cholesterol transported in the body?
As lipoproteins
What are low-density lipoproteins (LDL)?
Carry 75% of total cholesterol in blood from the liver to body cells
What are high-density lipoproteins (HDL)?
Remove excess cholesterol from body cells and transport it to the liver
What is atherosclerosis?
Narrowing and hardening of arteries
What does atherosclerosis result in?
Reduced blood flow through the affected artery
What are common vessels affected by atherosclerosis?
- Coronary arteries
- Carotid arteries
- Cerebral arteries
- Aorta
- Major arteries of the extremities
What is the first step necessary for atherosclerosis to occur?
Endothelial damage
What are the clinical manifestations of atherosclerosis?
- Angina pectoris
- Myocardial infarction
- Stroke
What is hypercholesterolaemia?
Elevated blood cholesterol
What are some causes of hypercholesterolaemia?
- Genetic factors
- Age
- Diet
- Sedentary lifestyle
- Diabetes
- Obesity
What is angina pectoris?
Ischaemic heart disease due to obstruction or spasm of the coronary arteries
What are the types of angina?
- Stable
- Unstable
What is myocardial infarction?
Necrosis of myocardial tissue due to ischaemia
What are the signs and symptoms of a myocardial infarction?
- Severe chest pain
- Pain radiating to arms, jaw, neck
- Sweating
- Nausea
- Light-headedness
What is heart failure?
The heart is impaired as a pump, failing to supply sufficient blood flow
What are the two types of heart failure?
- Acute
- Chronic
What are the signs of right-sided heart failure?
- Systemic oedema
- Ascites
- Portal hypertension
What are the signs of left-sided heart failure?
- Pulmonary oedema
- Congestion bronchitis
- Cardiac asthma
What is a stroke?
A disruption of blood supply to the brain
What does F.A.S.T stand for in relation to stroke symptoms?
- Face
- Arms
- Speech
- Time
What is a transient ischaemic attack?
Temporary inadequacy of circulation to part of the brain
What is an aneurysm?
Abnormal local dilations of arteries due to weakness of the vessel wall
What is hypertension?
High blood pressure, a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease
What are the two types of hypertension?
- Primary
- Secondary
What are common complications of hypertension?
- Myocardial infarction
- Heart failure
- Stroke
- Chronic kidney disease
What is arrhythmia?
Any disorder of heart rate or rhythm
What is the physiological bradycardia rate?
Rate below 60 bpm
What is the physiological tachycardia rate?
Rate over 100 bpm
What is the effect of the sympathetic nervous system on heart rate?
Increases heart rate and strength of contraction
What is arrhythmia?
Any disorder of heart rate / rhythm.
Define bradycardia.
Rate below 60.
What are the physiological and pathological causes of bradycardia?
- Physiological: Athlete
- Pathological: Often caused by diseases affecting the SA or AV node (e.g. myocardial infarction).
Define tachycardia.
Rate over 100.
What is atrial fibrillation?
The most common cardiac arrhythmia characterized by irregular rhythm and force leading to inadequate blood supply.
What can atrial fibrillation lead to?
- Stagnation of blood in the atria
- Thrombus formation
- Risk of embolism (stroke).
What are common symptoms of atrial fibrillation?
- Breathlessness
- Palpitations
- Dizziness
- Chest discomfort.
What is cardiac arrest?
Conduction arrest, not a heart attack.
What percentage of cardiac arrests occur due to coronary heart disease?
Approximately 70%.
What is endocarditis?
An inflammation of the endocardium and valves, usually a bacterial infection.
What are the non-specific symptoms of endocarditis?
- Fever
- Fatigue
- Muscle and joint aching
- Loss of appetite.
What is myocarditis?
Inflammation of the myocardium.
What are common causes of myocarditis?
- Viral infection
- Side effect of COVID vaccination
- Systemic inflammatory condition.
- Drug toxicity.
- Heavy metal toxicity.
What are the signs and symptoms of pericarditis?
- Chest pain (radiating to the back)
- Dyspnoea when reclining
- Low-grade fever
- Weakness and fatigue.
What is pitting oedema?
Excess fluid accumulation in interstitial spaces, most common type.
What are some causes of oedema?
- Heart failure
- Renal disease
- Hepatic disease
- Drugs (long-term steroids, NSAIDs).
- DVT.
What is ascites?
An excessive accumulation of fluid in the peritoneum.
What is a common cause of ascites?
Liver cirrhosis (80%) due to portal hypertension.
What is deep vein thrombosis (DVT)?
Thrombus formation in the deep veins of the legs.
What are the symptoms of pulmonary embolism?
- Dyspnoea
- Chest pain
- Cough
- Haemoptysis.
What are the risks for developing DVT?
- Reduced blood flow (immobility, pressure on vein)
- Varicose veins
- Changes in blood (dehydration, polycythaemia).
- Damage to blood vessel wall.
What are varicose veins?
Incompetent valves cause pooling of the venous blood and chronically dilated superficial veins.
List some symptoms of varicose veins.
- Aching and fatigue of legs
- Distended blue veins.
What are hemorrhoids also referred to as?
‘Piles’.
What causes hemorrhoids?
- Chronic constipation
- Chronic cough
- Hypertension (portal hypertension).
- Obesity, pregnancy.
What is Raynaud’s syndrome?
Intermittent attacks of ischaemia in extremities.
What is the common treatment for oedema?
- Treat the cause
- Diuretics
- Exercise.
- Lymphatic drainage and massage.
What is the differential diagnosis of chest pain?
- Cardiovascular: Stable/unstable angina, MI, pericarditis.
- Musculoskeletal: Rib joint inflammation, rib fracture.
- Nervous: Shingles.
- Pulmonary: Pulmonary embolism, pneumothorax, pneumonia, pleurisy.
- GIT: Gastro-oesophageal reflux, pancreatitis, hepatitis.
What are the key steps involved in the formation of an atherosclerotic plaque?
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What are the risk factors for atherosclerosis?
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What is the difference between a stroke and TIA?
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What is the usual cause of a myocardial infarction?
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List THREE symptoms of pericarditis.
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Compare the main symptoms of left- and right-sided heart failure.
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Explain what is meant by an aneurysm.
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What are the major risk factors of a DVT?
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What are common causes of hemorrhoids?
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Describe TWO possible complications of pericarditis.
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