04_Respiratory System Flashcards
What are the main functions of the respiratory system?
- Gas exchange (O2 and CO2)
- Warming or cooling and moistening of air
- Removal of inhaled particles (immunity)
- Voice production and olfaction
What is the role of alveolar macrophages?
Engulf and destroy microbes entering the alveoli
What structures are involved in the gas exchange process?
- Alveoli
- Pulmonary capillaries
What is external respiration?
Exchange of gases between the blood and lungs (air)
What is internal respiration?
Exchange of gases between blood and cells
What is cellular respiration?
Metabolic process whereby energy (ATP) is obtained by metabolising carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
What is the mucociliary escalator?
A mechanism that moves particle-laden mucus towards the oesophagus for removal
What are the components of the respiratory tract?
- Nose
- Paranasal sinuses
- Pharynx
- Larynx
- Trachea
- Bronchi
- Bronchioles
- Alveoli
What are the functions of the nasal cavity?
- Filtering air
- Warming air
- Humidification
- Sneezing reflex
- Olfactory function
What are the four types of paranasal sinuses?
- Frontal
- Ethmoid
- Sphenoid
- Maxillary
What is the length of the pharynx?
Approximately 13 cm long
What is the function of the larynx?
- Production of sound
- Protection of the trachea during swallowing
- Air passageway
- Warming and humidifying
What is the trachea made of?
Incomplete C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
What triggers the coughing reflex?
Irritation of the mucous membrane
What is the primary function of bronchi?
Deliver air into the lungs
What distinguishes bronchi from bronchioles?
Bronchi contain cartilage rings, while bronchioles have more smooth muscle and no cartilage
What are alveoli?
Small hollow cavities that act as the sites of gas exchange in the lungs
What is the role of pulmonary surfactant?
Reduces surface tension within the alveoli, preventing collapse
What surrounds the lungs?
Pleura, which are serous membranes
What are the two phases of ventilation?
- Inhalation
- Exhalation
What muscles are primarily involved in ventilation?
- Intercostal muscles
- Diaphragm
What is the role of accessory muscles in ventilation?
Assist in breathing and are often over-recruited in patients with breathlessness
Fill in the blank: The nasal cavity is divided by a _______.
[septum]
True or False: The right bronchus is shorter and wider than the left bronchus.
True
What are the two types of alveolar cells?
- Type I alveolar cells
- Type II alveolar cells
What happens during the coughing reflex?
Deep inhalation, closure of the glottis, contraction of abdominal muscles, forced removal of irritation
What is the surface area of the alveoli approximately?
80 m²
What are the secondary muscles of ventilation also known as?
Accessory muscles
These muscles assist in breathing and can become over-recruited in conditions like asthma.
Which muscles are examples of secondary muscles of ventilation?
- Trapezius
- Sternocleidomastoid
- Scalenes
Is inhalation an active or passive process?
Active process
How does air enter the lungs during inhalation?
Down a pressure gradient due to negative pressure in the thoracic cavity
What is exhalation typically considered?
Passive process
When does exhalation become an active process?
During forceful breathing
What is tidal volume?
The normal volume of air that enters the lungs during inspiration without extra effort
What is the average tidal volume for humans?
About 500ml
What gases are primarily found in inspired air?
- Oxygen (21%)
- Carbon dioxide (0.04%)
- Nitrogen and rare gases (78%)
What percentage of oxygen in the blood is transported by haemoglobin?
98.5%
What is the role of haemoglobin in the blood?
Transport oxygen
How is carbon dioxide primarily transported in the blood?
- 70% as bicarbonate (HCO3)
- 23% bound to haemoglobin
- 7% dissolved in plasma
What is the bicarbonate buffer reaction?
CO2 combines with water to produce carbonic acid, which decomposes into bicarbonate and H+
What happens to blood pH when CO2 levels increase?
Blood pH decreases, leading to respiratory acidosis
What three mechanisms regulate blood pH?
- Buffer systems
- Increased exhalation of CO2
- Kidney excretion of H+
What is cell respiration?
The process of energy production (ATP) within cells
What are the two types of respiration?
- Aerobic respiration (with oxygen)
- Anaerobic respiration (without oxygen)
Where is the respiratory centre located?
In the brainstem (medulla oblongata and pons)
What triggers hyperventilation?
High arterial CO2 levels
What are common signs and symptoms of respiratory issues?
- Congestion
- Runny nose
- Sneezing
- Cough
- Sputum
- Wheezing
- Chest pain
- Breathlessness
- Dyspnoea
- Orthopnoea
- Hyperventilation
- Cyanosis
What is cyanosis?
Inadequate oxygenated blood in an area
What causes purulent sputum?
Infections such as bronchitis or pneumonia
What is rhinitis?
Inflammation of the nasal mucosa
What are some symptoms of rhinitis?
- Itchy runny nose
- Sneezing
- Stuffy nose
- Decreased smell
What are the common treatments for rhinitis?
- Anti-histamines
- Decongestants
- Steroid nasal sprays
What is the common cold?
An infection of the upper respiratory tract
What are the signs and symptoms of influenza?
- Sudden onset
- Fever and shivering
- Malaise
- Muscle and joint pain
- Rhinitis
- Sore throat
What is the incubation period for influenza?
One to four days
What is sinusitis?
Inflammation of the membranous lining of one or more of the sinuses
What are the signs and symptoms of sinusitis?
- Pain over affected sinus
- Congestion
- Sinus headaches
- Fever
- Nasal drip
- Change in tone of voice
- Reduced sense of smell
What are the common signs and symptoms of sinusitis?
Pain over affected sinus, congestion, sinus headaches, fever, nasal drip, change in tone of voice, reduced sense of smell
Sinusitis may occur due to infections or allergies.
What is the allopathic drug treatment for sinusitis?
Painkillers, decongestants
These treatments aim to relieve symptoms.
List some natural treatments for sinusitis.
- High doses of vitamin C
- Zinc
- Vitamin D
- Steam inhalations with mint, thyme, eucalyptus
- Herbal medicine (e.g. eyebright, echinacea)
- Homeopathy
- Acupuncture
- Netty pot drainage
Natural treatments focus on immune support and symptom relief.
What are nasal polyps?
Soft, non-cancerous (benign) masses of oedematous nasal mucosa
They result from chronic inflammation.
What are the causes and risks of nasal polyps?
- Chronic inflammation (viral, bacterial, fungal)
- Allergies (chronic rhinitis)
Chronic inflammation leads to increased permeability of blood vessels.
What are the signs and symptoms of nasal polyps?
- Difficulty breathing
- Runny nose
- Persistent stuffiness
- Chronic sinus infections
- Reduced sense of smell
- Dull headaches
- Snoring
- Mouth breathing
- Can cause sleep apnoea
Symptoms can vary in severity.
What is tonsillitis?
Inflammation of the tonsils, commonly affecting children and young adults
It can be caused by viral or bacterial infections.
What are the signs and symptoms of tonsillitis?
- Sore throat that worsens when swallowing
- Fever over 38°C
- Coughing
- Headache
- Red/inflamed tonsils
Tonsils are part of the immune system.
What are the complications associated with tonsillitis?
- Middle ear infection
- Quinsy (abscess)
Complications can arise from untreated tonsillitis.
What is quinsy?
An abscess that forms around the tonsils, usually due to tonsillitis
It mainly affects adolescents and young adults.
What are the signs and symptoms of quinsy?
- Severe unilateral throat pain
- Dysphagia
- Unilateral earache
- Trismus (limited mouth opening)
- Fever
- Swollen lymph nodes
Symptoms can indicate severe infection.
What is pharyngitis?
Acute inflammation of the mucous membrane of the pharynx
It often accompanies colds and tonsillitis.
What are the signs and symptoms of laryngitis?
- Hoarseness
- Weak voice or voice loss
- Sore/dry/tickly throat
- Dry cough
- Difficulty breathing (in children)
Laryngitis can be acute or chronic.
What is asthma?
A chronic airway disease with reversible narrowing of the bronchi and bronchioles
It involves inflammation and bronchial hyper-responsiveness.
What are some possible reasons for the increasing prevalence of asthma?
- Earlier weaning
- Inadequate exposure to pathogens in childhood
- Inherited dysbiosis
- Antibiotic use in children
- Food additives
- Leaky gut syndrome
- Nutritional deficiencies (C, D, E, magnesium)
These factors may contribute to the rise in asthma cases.
What are the two classifications of asthma?
- Extrinsic (atopic) asthma
- Intrinsic asthma
Each type has different triggers and affected populations.
What are the signs and symptoms of an asthma attack?
- Recurrent episodes of breathlessness
- Chest tightness
- Wheezing when exhaling
- Nocturnal coughing
- Overuse of accessory muscles of ventilation
An asthma attack can be life-threatening.
What is bronchitis?
Inflammation of the bronchial tubes, can be acute or chronic
It can result from viral or bacterial infections.
What are the signs and symptoms of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)?
- Chronic cough with sputum
- Dyspnoea
- Prolonged expiration
- Wheeze
- Frequent infections
COPD encompasses conditions like emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
What is pneumonia?
An infection of the alveoli and terminal bronchioles, mostly bacterial
It is particularly common in infants, children, and the elderly.
What is pulmonary fibrosis?
Gradual replacement of the epithelial cell lining in alveoli with fibrotic tissue
This scarring reduces the ability to exchange gases.
What are the main causes of pulmonary fibrosis?
- Idiopathic (unknown cause)
- Smoking
- Asbestos exposure
- Certain drugs
- Radiation therapy
- Autoimmune diseases
The condition can be associated with various risk factors.
What is obstructive sleep apnoea?
Intermittent and repeated upper airway obstruction during sleep
It can lead to serious health consequences if untreated.
What is the definition of obstructive sleep apnoea?
Intermittent and repeated upper airway collapse during sleep leading to interrupted breathing.
List the causes or risks of obstructive sleep apnoea.
- Obesity
- Male gender
- Middle-aged
- Smokers
- Alcohol
- Sedatives
- Nasal obstruction (rhinitis, polyps)
What is the primary treatment for obstructive sleep apnoea?
Nasal continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) and lifestyle modification.
What are common signs and symptoms of obstructive sleep apnoea?
- Loud snoring
- Daytime sleepiness
- Morning headache
- Morning drowsiness
- Nocturnal choking
- Reduced libido
How is obstructive sleep apnoea diagnosed?
Polysomnography.
What is a pneumothorax?
Air accumulation within the pleural cavity, causing part or all of a lung to collapse.
How can air enter the pleural cavity in a pneumothorax?
Via defect in visceral or parietal pleura (e.g. rib fracture).
What are the two types of pneumothorax?
- Simple (heart remains central)
- Tension (unstable, progressive buildup of air shifting the heart away)
List two causes of spontaneous pneumothorax.
- Rupture of cyst/pocket of air
- Tuberculosis
- Cystic fibrosis
- Emphysema
What are the signs and symptoms of pneumothorax?
- Dyspnoea
- Pleuritic chest pain
- Cyanosis
- Loss of consciousness
- Coma
- Reduced breath sounds
- Decreased cardiac output
What is pleurisy?
Pleural inflammation where the pleural surfaces become coated with inflammatory materials.
What are the causes of pleurisy?
- Tumor
- Infection (e.g. pneumonia)
What are the signs and symptoms of pleurisy?
- Dyspnoea
- Sharp chest pain while breathing
- Dry cough
- Dullness with percussion
- Friction rub on auscultation
What is a pulmonary embolism?
Obstruction within the pulmonary arterial tree often caused by a thrombosis.
What can cause fat embolisms?
Bone fractures.
What are the symptoms of pulmonary embolism?
- Dyspnoea
- Pleuritic chest pain
- Coughing blood
- Calf pain (if following a DVT)
What are the signs of pulmonary embolism?
- Tachypnoea
- Tachycardia
- Crackles on chest auscultation
What is the treatment for pulmonary embolism?
- Emergency: anti-coagulation therapy and oxygen
- Prevention: regular exercise, hydration, anti-inflammatory diet
What is cystic fibrosis?
A multi-organ genetic disease that affects chloride channels and key exocrine glands.
What happens to mucus in cystic fibrosis?
Mucus becomes thick and clogs up the lungs and some digestive organs.
What are the principal causes of death in cystic fibrosis?
Lung disease.
List two symptoms of cystic fibrosis.
- Persistent cough
- Sputum production
- Recurring lung infections
- Wheezing
- Chest pain
What are the allopathic treatments for cystic fibrosis?
- Antibiotics
- Physiotherapy
- Bronchodilators
- Mucolytics
What are the natural treatments for cystic fibrosis?
- Herbal medicines
- Nutritional support
- Avoid irritants and allergens
- Acupuncture
Fill in the blank: A pneumothorax is considered a _______ and typically requires a chest drain.
medical emergency
True or False: Pulmonary embolism can lead to cardiac arrest and heart failure if untreated.
True
