016 Limb development Flashcards

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1
Q

when does upper limb development start?

A

week 4 (upper limbs)

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2
Q

when does lower limb development start?

A

week 6

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3
Q

on the human arm skeleton, what is proximal and distal?

A
  • humerus is proximal
  • phalanges is distal
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4
Q

on the human arm skeleton, what is anterior and posterior?

A
  • thumb is anterior
  • little finger is posterior
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5
Q

on the hand, what is dorsal and ventral?

A
  • dorsal = back of hand
  • ventral = palm
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6
Q

name 4 different limb defects

A
  • Grieg syndrome
  • Apert syndrome
  • Holt-Oram syndrome
  • thalidomide defects
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7
Q

describe what Grieg syndrome is and what it is caused by (genetic)

A
  • polydactyly (extra digits) and syndactyly (digits fused)
  • heterozygous mutation in GLI3 gene (part of sonic the hedgehog signaling pathway)
  • also causes neuro and heart defects
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8
Q

describe what Apert syndrome is and what it is caused by (genetic)

A
  • syndactyly (digits fused)
  • heterozygous mutation in FGDR2 gene
  • also causes cranium sutures to fuse early
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9
Q

describe what Holt-Oram syndrome is and what it is caused by (genetic)

A
  • phocomelia = long bones reduced or absent
  • only arms, not legs
  • heterozygous mutations in the TBX5 gene (transcription factor, a T-box gene = DNA binding domains)
  • also causes heart defects
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10
Q

what is thalidomide?

A
  • drug given to pregnant women in the 1950s-60s to control morning sickness
  • caused serious congenital limb defects
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11
Q

what limb defect does thalidomide cause?

A
  • causes congenital phocomelia of arms or legs or both
  • also causes heart defects, deformed ears and eyes and alimentary canals, urinary tracts, blindness and deafness
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12
Q

why are most babies born with limb defects (they don’t die in the uterus)?

A
  • fetus’ dont need limbs to survive in the uterus (compared to if it had a gut defect)
  • so most live till birth
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13
Q

what is the first part of limb development and when?

A
  • limb buds form (day 24 for arms, day 28 for legs)
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14
Q

what is the structure of limb buds and what do they become?

A
  • epidermal jacket/outer layer (skin) enclosing lateral plate mesoderm
  • lateral plate mesoderm becomes : bones, tendons, ligaments, dermis, muscle sheath, blood vessels
  • apical ectodermal ridge (AER) forms at distal end of limb bud
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15
Q

what is the AER/apical ectodermal ridge?

A
  • ridge of columnar cells at the distal end of limb bud
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16
Q

what is the genetic difference between the forelimb and hindlimb?

A
  • forelimb = Tbx5 transcription factor expressed only
  • hindlimb = Tbx4 transcription factor expressed only
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17
Q

where is Tbx5 expressed, and what does a mutation cause?

A
  • forelimb
  • Holt-Oram syndrome = short long bone in arm
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18
Q

where is Tbx4 expressed and what does a mutation cause?

A
  • hindlimb
  • congenital clubfoot, small patella syndrome
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19
Q

how/where does the limb bud mesenchyme proliferate?

A
  • along the proximal-distal axis
  • the humerus/ femur first, phalanges last
  • digit 4 first then3,2 then 1 and 5 together
20
Q

describe the process of endochondral ossification in fetus’

A
  • mesenchyme condenses to form the limb bone precursors
  • these cells form chondrocytes that produce cartilage
  • centre of the bone becomes vascularised first and osteoblasts are formed, which replace the cartilage with mineralised bone
  • primary ossification sites all grow at the same time in the centre of all the long bones in the fetus
  • secondary ossification centres form around birth
21
Q

what does skeletal muscle develop from?

A
  • paraxial mesoderm = somites
  • they migrate from the myotome to the limb bud in about the 5th week of development forming dorsal and ventral masses
22
Q

how are the myotome cells attracted to the limb bud?

A
  • HGF, hepatocyte growth factor, secreted by the limb bud mesenchyme
23
Q

what happens if there is a mutation in the HGF or HGF receptor gene?

A
  • no muscle
24
Q

what are the spinal cord levels of the forelimb?

A
  • T2-C5
25
Q

what are the spinal cord levels of the hindlimb?

A
  • L4-S3
26
Q

describe how innervation of the limb develops

A
  • motor and sensory neurons form on ventral side of spinal cord coz of SHH
  • limb muscle doesn’t attract axons but regulates the final branching pattern (don’t know what attracts them)
27
Q

describe how neuromuscular junctions develop in fetus

A
  • multiple motor neurons will innervate a single myotube
  • at birth only the most active synapse is retained and others are destroyed (only 1 per myotubule)
28
Q

how do we know that the AER (apical ectodermal ridge) is needed for limb development?

A
  • experiment with chick embryo
  • remove AER early on = truncated limb, only humerus and smaller, no forearm or hand
  • remove AER late = humerus and forearm, no hand
    = shows proximal-distal growth
29
Q

what is FGF?

A

fibroblast growth factor
- essential for limb outgrowth
- FGF mutations = missing bones in limbs

30
Q

how many FGF genes are expressed in AER?

A
  • 4 types
31
Q

how does FGF stimulate limb growth?

A
  • FGF beads in AER diffuse into mesenchyme, which stimulates proliferation and limb bud growth
32
Q

what happens if you implant an FGF bead in the lateral plate mesoderm between the forelimb and hindlimb?

A
  • an extra limb will form between the arm and leg
33
Q

describe the progress zone of limb growth

A
  • just beneath AER
  • Secretion of FGF by the AER maintains a high rate of cell division in the underlying mesenchyme = the progress zone
    = high FGF and high mitosis
34
Q

describe the differentiation zone of limb growth

A
  • more proximal than the progress zone
  • further away from AER
    = low FGF, low mitosis
  • cells divide more slowly and differentiate
35
Q

what decides the proximal and distal fates of the limb patterning?

A
  • FGF from AER determines distal fates (may act as a morphogen gradient)
  • retinoic acid from the flank - derivative of vit A - determines proximal fates (e.g. humerus)
36
Q

what is the zone of polarising activity (ZPA)

A
  • area of mesenchyme that contains signals instructing limb bud to form along the anterior-posterior axis
  • this region expresses SHH
37
Q

describe how limbs have anterior-posterior patterning in limb development

A
  • the zone of polarising activity (ZPA) in the mesenchyme of the limb bud
  • expresses Shh genes which determine anterior-posterior patterning (ie, thumb anterior, pinky posterior)
  • if you take out a graft of ZPA and implant it on the opposite side, you will get duplicate digits and mirror image symmetry
38
Q

describe the Anterior-Posterior morphogen gradient in limb/digit development

A
  • ZPA was believed to be the source of a morphogen, which specifies different digits at different concentrations
  • highest concentration = most posterior digits (pinky)
  • lowest concentration = most anterior digits (thumb)
  • ZPA grafts cause counter-gradient and duplicates digits
39
Q

what happens if you activate SHH expression in anterior and posterior parts of the limb bud?

A
  • mirror-image duplication of the digits identical to that of a ZPA graft
40
Q

what happens if you have increased Shh?

A
  • ## preaxial-polydactyly ( extra digits, thumb)
41
Q

what happens if you have decreased Shh?

A
  • shortened limbs with very few / no digits
  • acheiropodia (rare) - mostly due to inbreeding in brazil, isolated tribes
42
Q

what is the relationship between FGF, Shh, Gremlin and Bmp?

A
  • FGF (AER) induces Shh expression (ZPA)
  • Shh induces Gremlin expression (in distal mesenchyme)
  • Gremlin inhibits Bmp signaling
  • Bmp signaling reduces FGF expression
  • loop, positive feedback = continuous growth
43
Q

how is limb growth stopped?

A
  • as the limb grows , the Shh domain remains the same size, while cells that previously expressed Shh cannot express Gremlin
  • thus a barrier of unresponsive cells, which increase in size with limb bud growth, separated the Shh domain from the Gremlin domain
  • = reduced Gremlin = increased Bmp = increased reduction of FGF = reduced Shh in ZPA = growth stops
44
Q

describe apoptosis of the digits in limb development

A
  • initially, digits are all connected (webbed fingers)
  • apoptosis occurs to remove/kill interdigital cells
  • apoptosis is controlled by Bmp signaling molecules which are only active in interdigital region
  • Noggin and Gremlin both inhibit Bmp and is found in the digits (no apoptosis)
45
Q

what is syndactyly and how is it caused?

A
  • where 2 or more digits are fused together
  • most common congenital abnormality
  • caused by defective apoptosis of interdigital region