Y2 Module 5 - Relationships Flashcards
What is anisogamy and how does it relate to sexual selection?
Differences between male and female sex cells. Male - common, no energy expense, small. Females are the opposite. These differences give rise to different mating strategies.
What is the preferred mating strategies for males and females?
Males - intra sexual selection (mate competition). Compete with other males for access to females. Quantity over quality - males most interested in young fertile females.
Females - inter sexual selection (mate choice). women invest more (choosey). Choose a male based on a given trait which indicates genetic fitness. Will choose males who can provide resources, protection, etc.
What is meant by “the runaway process” and the “sexy sons hypothesis”?
Women choose a mate based on a given trait that indicates genetic fitness. This trait will then be passed on to offspring until over generations the trait becomes more common.
Females choose the fittest male, and will then produce the fittest offspring. The offspring will then mates with the fittest over the opposite sex.
Why does sexual selection theory not take social and cultural differences into account?
Social norms of sexual behaviour change more rapidly than evolutionary timescales and come about due to cultural factors. Women have greater role in the workplace, which means their preference may be less dependent on resources (Bereczkei et al. 1997). Chang et al. 2011 found that over a period of 25 years many preferences changed, but many stayed the same —> in line with the social changes in that time. Mate preference may be a combination of evolutionary and and cultural influences —> a theory that does not take both into account is limited.
Clark and Hatfield (1989) provide strong support for the inter and intra sexual selection. Explain why.
Male and female psychology students approached other students across campus. They approached other students with the question: ‘I have been noticing you around campus. I find you very attractive, will you go to bed with me tonight?’. No females answered with ‘yes’ whereas 75% of males said yes. Supports sexual selection as it shows that women are choosier than men and males have evolved behaviour to ensure reproductive success.
How do findings from lonely hearts studies support predictions from sexual selection theory?
Waynforth & Dunbar. Studied lonely hearts adverts, where people advertised what they are looking for and what they have to offer. Women, more than men, advertised physical attractiveness and indicators of youth. Men offered resources more than women did. Supports predictions that women deem resources important in a partner and men are attracted to youth and fertility.
Outline research support by Buss for preferences related to anisogamy.
Survey over 33 countries and 10,000 adults. Were questioned on attributes that evolutionary theory predicts should be important for partner preference. Found that women placed greater value on resource related characteristics (ambition, financial prospects, industriousness) than males. Males valued reproductive capacity (looks, youth, chastity) more than females. Findings support predictions from sexual selection and can be applied across a variety of cultures reflecting fundamental human preferences.
Briefly explain what is meant by self-disclosure and the role it plays in attraction.
The process of slowly but surely revealing more and more about yourself to a partner. These self-disclosures strength the romantic bond between partners.
Self-disclosure is an important aspect in social penetration theory. Describe this theory.
Altman & Taylor (1973). The gradual process of revealing your inner self to another. In romantic relationships it involves the reciprocal exchange of information. When we reveal sensitive information we are displaying trust → having the trust reciprocated will allow the relationship to progress. Revealing more and more intimate information allows them to “penetrate” further into each others lives. This results in greater understanding of each other and increased attraction.
What is meant by breadth and depth of self-disclosure?
These are both important elements to self-disclosure - as these increase, partners become more committed to each others. We disclose a lot at first - superficial, low risk information. Breadth is narrow at first - lots of topics are off limits and we don’t want to scare people off. As the relationship develops, self-disclosure deepens, encompassing a wider range of topics, culminating in the revealing of intimate, high risk information.
Why is reciprocity important in self-disclosure?
There needs to be a balance of self-disclosure between partners. This increases feelings of intimacy. Once you have disclosed something, hopefully your partner will respond in a way that is rewarding (empathy, equally intimate etc).
Explain how research into self disclosure has had real world applications.
Could be used to improve relationship satisfaction. Hass & Stafford (1998). 57% of gay men and women said that honest self-disclosure was the way they maintained and deepened their relationships. Could be used to improve communication skills in individuals who maintain their relationships through small talk → providing more satisfying relationships.
Evaluate self disclosure in terms of the cross cultural applicability and the methodology used in the research.
Predictions of self-disclosure are not universally applicable. Tang et al. (2013) found that individuals in individualist cultures self-disclosed much more (sexual thoughts) than in collectivist cultures. Nevertheless relationship satisfaction was not impaired. Correlation vs Causation (e.g. Sprecher & Hendrick). We cannot assume there is a causal link. It could be other way round (satisfaction causes disclosure); it could also be a third factor that cause attraction e.g. time spent together.
Describe the role of physical attractiveness in attraction.
Facial symmetry - deemed to be attractive. Indication of genetic fitness (Shackelford and Larsen). Neoticism (baby features). Deemed attractive - brings out caring response.
What is the halo effect?
The fact that we have preconceived ideas about the personality traits of attractive people - universally positive. What is beautiful is good. Dion et al. physically attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable and successful. This belief makes them even more attractive to us - so we behave more positively towards them.
Briefly outline the Matching hypothesis.
Individuals do not choose the most attractive people as partners. They compromise and choose individuals who match their own level of attractiveness. We desire the most physically attractive partners for many reasons - we also balance this out against our fear of rejection.
Research into online dating supports the view that we are realistic in our partner choices. Do you agree with this statement - explain your answer.
Disagree - Taylor et al. (2011). Monitored activity logs on a dating site → people tended to seek dates with individuals who were much more attractive than themselves. Although it does not state whether or not the dates went ahead, the findings do challenge the prediction made by the theory.
Outline findings from cross-cultural studies into physical attractiveness.
Cunningham et al. (1995) - The neotenous features have been rated as attractive by males from many ethnic backgrounds. Wheeler & Kim (1997) found the Halo Effect to be just as strong in individualist and collectivist cultures. These findings do support the importance of physical attractiveness - certain female features are deemed more attractive by males across many cultures and societies. Results indicate there may be an evolutionary factor in physical attractiveness.
Explain the issue of individual differences in physical attractiveness.
Some people place more emphasis on physical attractiveness than others. Towhey (1979) created the MACHO scale, designed to measure sexist attitudes and behaviours. They found that the PPTs who scored highly on this scale were more influenced by physical attractiveness when making judgements on likability. Shows that the effect of physical attractiveness can be moderated by other factors and so challenges the idea that this is important in relationship formation for all potential partners.
Outline research support for the Halo Effect.
Palmer and Peterson (2012) found that physically attractive people were rated as more politically knowledgeable and competent than unattractive people. The effect continued, even when it was revealed that these people had no expert knowledge. Has obvious implications for the political process. The effect has been found to be prevalent in many areas of life confirming that physical attractiveness is an important factor in the formation of relationships - both romantic and not.
What is meant by field of availables?
The entire set of potential romantic partners, all the people we could realistically form a relationship with.
What is meant by field of desirables?
From the field of availables, those who are attractive to us.
What is meant by law of attraction?
The idea that we find similarity of attitudes attractive.
What is meant by complementarity?
Similarity becomes less important as a relationship develops, and is replaced by a need for your partner to balance your traits with opposite ones of their own.
What is meant by homogamy?
The idea that you are more likely to form a relationship with someone who is socially or culturally similar to yourself.
What is the filter theory?
We narrow down the field of available to a field of desirables by putting people through a set of filters.
Social demography. A wide rage of factors that increase the chances of people meeting (education, class, ethnic group, religion). Although we will meet others from further away, our most meaningful interactions are usually with people nearby. Accessibility is key - requires very little effort. Anyone who is too different will be discounted (leads to homogamy).
Similar Attitudes. Sharing important beliefs and values (partly due to the field of availables). Similarity of attitudes is important especially in the first 18 months (a need to agree over the basics, which leads to deeper self-disclosure). Byrne (1997) Law of attraction.
Complementarity. The ability of partners to meet each others needs - they have traits the other lacks. The need for complementarity is more important for long-term couples. Opposites attraction at later stages. Also gives partners the feeling of forming a whole.
It is suggested that key factors differ at different times in the relationship – how did Winch’s (1958) research support this idea?
Winch (1958) found that similarities of personality, interests and attitudes between partners are typical of the earliest stages of a relationship. Between partners happily married for several years, complementarity of needs is more important that similarity, according to Winch.
