Y1 Module 6 / Y2 Module 3 - Research Methods Flashcards

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1
Q

What is an aim?

A

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate.

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2
Q

What do you know about hypotheses?

A

Needs to clearly state the relationship between two variables.
Can be directional or non-directional.
Variables need to be operationalised - made testable/measurable.

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3
Q

What is the difference between IV and DV?

A

The researcher changes/manipulates the IV.

The effects of this change can be seen/measured in the DV.

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4
Q

What is the difference between EV and CV?

A

Both are any other variable that, if not controlled, could affect the DV.
An CV varies systematically with the IV - this means it is related to the IV in some way.
An EV does not vary systematically with the IV - It is not directly related to the IV, but could still affect the DV.

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5
Q

What is meant by demand characteristics?

A

Any cue from the researcher or research situation that may be interpreted by participants as revealing the purpose of the investigation.
This may lead to a PPT changing their behaviour within the research situation.

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6
Q

What is meant by investigator effects?

A

Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour on the research outline.
Could include everything from the design of the study to the selection of, and interaction with participants during the study.

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7
Q

What is meant by randomisation and standardisation?

A

Randomisation: The use of chance in order to control for the effect of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of conditions.
Standardisation: Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.

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8
Q

Name and describe 3 types of experimental design.

A

Independent Groups: PPTs are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.
Repeated Measures: All PPTs take part in all conditions of the experiment.
Matched Pairs: Pairs of PPTs are first matched on some variable that could affect the DV. Then one member of the pair is assigned to Condition A and the other to Condition B.

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9
Q

Give 1 strength and 1 weakness of each type of experimental design.

A

Independent Groups: The ppts in the different groups are not the same → Individual differences are an issues → Random allocation is used to deal with this. Less Economical - twice as many ppts are needed. Order effects are less of a problem → ppts are less likely to guess the aims.
Repeated Measures: Order effects can arise because each ppt takes part in both conditions - Fatigue, boredom, and practice can affect performance → Counter-balancing is used. It is more likely that ppts will work out the aim, as they experiences all conditions → demand characteristics. Participant variables are controlled and fewer participants are needed.
Matched Pairs: Order effects and demand characteristics are less of an issue → participants only take part in a single condition. Participants can never be matched exactly - participant variables can never be eliminated. Very time-consuming and expensive particularly if pre-testing is required → less economical.

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10
Q

Name and describe 4 types of experiment.

A

Lab Experiment: Takes place in a controlled environment. Researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV. Researcher maintains strict control of EVs.
Field Experiment: Experiment takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effects on the DV.
Natural Experiment: The change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher. It would have happened whether or not the researcher had been there. The researcher records the effect on the DV.
Quasi Experiment: Not quite an experiment - not IV has not been determined by anyone. The variables simply exist e.g. being old or young. Strictly speaking this is not an experiment.

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11
Q

Give 1 strength and 1 weakness of each type of experiment.

A

Lab Experiment: High levels of control - researcher can be certain that any change in the DV was brought about by manipulating the IV → high internal validity.
Field Experiment: Higher levels of mundane realism than lab experiments due to the natural environment. Field experiments could produce behaviour that is more vald and authentic; High external validity due to ppts not knowing they are being studied. Increased realism means a loss of control of EVs → cause and effect is more difficult to establish. Difficult to replicate. Ethical issues - consent and privacy.
Natural Experiment: Provide opportunities for research that could not usually be done for ethical or practical reasons e.g. Romanian Orphan Studies. High external validity due to the study of real life issues and problems as they occur. Events only occur rarely → reduces the opportunity for research & Reduces generalisation.
PPTs cannot be randomly allocated → researchers might be less sure about the effects of IV on DV.
Quasi Experiment: Controlled conditions → same strengths as lab experiments. Cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions → confounding variables.

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12
Q

What is meant by population; sample; generalisation; bias.

A

Population: A group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest from which a smaller sample is drawn.
Sample: A group of people who take part in a research investigation. The sample is drawn from a target population and is presumed to be representative of that population.
Generalisation: The extent to which findings and conclusions from a particular investigation can be broadly applied to the population. This is made possible if the sample of participants is representative of the population.
Bias: In the context of sampling - when certain groups may be over for under-represented within the sample selected. E.g. too many younger people or too many people of one ethnic origin. This limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population.

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13
Q

Name and describe 5 types of sampling.

A

Opportunity: Asking whoever is around at the time of the study e.g. on the street.
Random: All member of the target population have an equal chance of being selected. Get a complete list of all members of the target population → assign a number → generate sample through lottery method (e.g. pick names out of a hat).
Volunteer: Participants select themselves. E.g. through responding to an advert in the paper.
Systematic: Every nth member of the target population is selected. E.g. Every 3rd house on a street or every 5th pupil on a register. The interval can be decided randomly to reduce bias.
Stratified: The composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups (Strata) within the (target) population. Identify the strata → work out the proportions needed for the sample to be representative → The participants that make up each stratum are randomly selected. E.g. In Machester 40% support Man U, 40% support Man City, 15% support Bolton and 5% support Leeds. In a stratified sample of 20 this would equate to 8, 8, 3, 1.

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14
Q

Evaluate the types of sampling.

A

Opportunity: Convenient and less costly. Participants are drawn from the same, very specific, area → findings cannot be generalised. Researcher bias → the researcher has complete control over the selection of participants.
Random: Free from researcher bias. Time consuming and difficult to conduct (full list of the target population may be difficult to obtain. Although statistically unlikely, the sample obtained could still be unrepresentative.
Volunteer: Easy and less time-consuming. Volunteer bias → could attract a certain profile of person: helpful, curious keen → affects generalisability.
Systematic: Avoids research bias → the research has no influence over who is chosen. Fairly representative - although it is possible to get a biased sample.
Stratified: Avoids research bias and produces a representative sample → generalisation of findings is possible. Strata cannot reflect all the ways that people are different → complete representation of the target population is not possible.

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15
Q

Name 5 ethical issues to be aware of in psychological research and how they could be dealt with.

A

Ethical issues: When a conflict exists between the rights and dignity of the participants and the aims of the research. Researchers must follow the BPS code of conduct.
Informed consent: Participants should be made aware of the aims, procedures and their right to withdraw before they agree to take part. Provide consent letter. There are alternatives: presumptive, prior general and retrospective consent.
Deception: Participants should not be deliberately misled. Some deception is acceptable. Participants must be fully debriefed at the end - this includes telling them they have the right to withdraw.
Protection from harm: Participants should not be exposed to any more risk than they would be in everyday life. If harm has been caused, participants should be offered counselling as part of the debrief.
Confidentiality: Participants’ anonymity and privacy must be respected. Personal details should be protected/should not be recorded. PPTs should be reminded at the end that their data will be protected.

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16
Q

What is a pilot study?

A

A small-scale version of the experiment/questionnaire/observation and will usually involve a small number of participants. The aim is to ‘road-test’ the procedure to make sure everything runs smoothly and if not, amendments and adjustments can be made.

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17
Q

What is a single-blind and double-blind procedure?

A

Single-blind: Participants are not made aware of some details of the investigation – such as the full aim or what condition they are in – to reduce demand characteristics.
Double-blind: Neither the participants nor the person conducting the study knows the aim of the research – to reduce demand characteristics and investigator effects.

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18
Q

What is meant by observational studies?

A

Studies that allow researchers to investigate observable behaviour within a natural or controlled setting. This allows flexibility to study more complex interactions between variables in a more natural way.
Provide psychologists with a way of seeing what people do without having to ask them.

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19
Q

What limitation do all observational studies have?

A

It is not possible to establish cause and effect.

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20
Q

What are naturalistic and controlled observations?

A

Controlled observations involve watching and recording behaviour within a structured environment, i.e. one where some variables are managed e.g. the Strange Situation. Naturalistic observations involves watching and recording behaviour in the setting within which it would normally occur.

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21
Q

Outline 1 strength and 1 weakness of naturalistic and controlled observations.

A

Naturalistic observations tend to have high external validity → the behaviour is studied in an environment in which it would usually occur. On the other hand however, the lack of control over the situation makes replication difficult. There may also be uncontrolled extraneous variables in naturalistic observations.
Controlled observations do not have the problem of EVs as much and are more easily replicated, however lack external validity.

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22
Q

Distinguish between covert and overt observations.

A

In covert observations participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded without their knowledge or consent. In overt observations participants’ behaviour is watched and recorded with their knowledge and consent.

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23
Q

Briefly evaluate covert and overt observations.

A

A positive side of covert observations is the fact that participant reactivity is removed, as they do not know they are being observed → behaviour will be more natural → higher internal validity. However, there are ethical issues → people may not want their behaviours to be noted down. Overt observations may be more ethical, but the fact that participants know they are being observed may influence their behaviour.

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24
Q

Distinguish between participant and non-participant observations.

A

Participant observations involves the researcher becoming a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.
In non-participants observations the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is watching and recording.

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25
Q

Briefly evaluate participant and non-participant observations.

A

In participant observations the researcher is able to gain insight in the lives of the participants, as they are experiencing the situation as the participants do. This however also increases the chances of losing objectivity → Going native → the lines between participant and researcher becomes blurred.
In non-participant observations an objective distance can be maintained from the study. However, at the same time, this means that valuable insight can be lost as they are too far removed from the people.

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26
Q

What is meant by behavioural categories in observations?

A

Behavioural categories refers to the breaking up of target behaviour into components that are observable and measurable.

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27
Q

Outline the issues related to behavioural categories that researchers should be aware of.

A

The must be observable. Measurable and self-evident → should need no further interpretation. All possible occurrences of the behaviour should be included - no dustbin / miscellaneous category. Categories should be exclusive and should not overlap.

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28
Q

What is meant by time and event sampling?

A

Counting how often a certain behaviour occurs (event).

Observing behaviour within a given time frame (time).

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29
Q

Evaluate time sampling.

A

Effective in reducing the amount of observations that have to be made. However the behaviour observed in the time frame may be unrepresentative of the observation as a whole.

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30
Q

Evaluate event sampling.

A

Useful if the target behaviour does not happen regularly and could be missed if time sampling were to be used. If the specified behaviour is too complex, the observer may overlook important details.

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31
Q

What is meant by open and closed questions?

A

Open questions do not include a fixed range of answers. In closed questions respondents are directed to a fixed set of responses from which they have to choose.

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32
Q

Briefly evaluate the use of questionnaires.

A

Questionnaires are cost effective - they can be used to gather large amounts of information quickly, as they can be distributed to groups quickly. Can also be conducted without the experimenter there, which reduces the effort involved.
Negative Side - People may not always be truthful → social desirability bias, which occurs when people want to paint themselves in a positive light. Is also subjected to a response bias → where participants always respond in a similar way (always ticking ‘yes’ for example).

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33
Q

Outline 1 strength and one weakness of structured interviews.

A

They are easy to replicate due to their standardised format. You cannot easily get extra information from them, as you cannot diverge from the set questions.

34
Q

Outline 1 strength and one weakness of unstructured interviews.

A

There is much more flexibility that in a structured interview → interviewer can follow up points as much as they want → gives more on an insight into the world of the participant. The amount of potential data gathered makes analysis very tricky → sifting through a lot of irrelevant information could make drawing conclusions tricky. As with questionnaires, it is possible to have a social desirability bias, however a skilled interviewer should be able to navigate this issue through building up rapport.

35
Q

Aside from open / closed questions, name and describe 3 ways in which researchers gather data in questionnaires.

A

Likert scales - A scale in which the respondent indicates their agreement with a statement. The scale usually has 5 points and ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Rating Scales - Similar to likert scale but gets respondents to identify a value which represents their strength of feeling on a certain topic.
Fixed choice options - an item that includes a list of possible options and respondents are required to indicate which apply to them.

36
Q

What is a correlation?

A

A mathematical technique in which a research investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables.

37
Q

How are correlations displayed?

A

Correlations are displayed on a scattergram. Each axis is formed by a co-variables. Each point (dot) is the X and Y position of each variable.

38
Q

What are the two types of correlation?

A

Positive correlation. As one co-variable increase so does the other one. E.g. The number of people in a room and noise are positively correlated.
Negative correlation. As one co-variable increases the other decreases. E.g. As the number of people in a room and space in that room are negatively correlated.

39
Q

What is the difference between correlations and experiments?

A

In an experiment the researcher controls or manipulates the IV and measure the effect on the DV. This deliberate change allows researchers to make infer that then changes in the IV caused the change in the DV. Correlations do not have IVs and DVs → cause an effect cannot be established. The influence of other variables not being studied (intervening variables) cannot be disregarded.

40
Q

Outline 1 strength and 1 weakness of correlational design.

A

Strength: They are a good starting point for research
Researchers can use them to assess the strength of the relationship between two variables before committing to an experiment. Correlations are also economical and easy to carry out. No controlled environment is needed and no manipulation of variables is necessary. It is also possible to use secondary data → less time consuming.
Weakness: We cannot infer cause and effect → no control and no manipulation of variables. The third variable problem - there is no way of knowing if another variable, not being tested, is affecting the outcomes. This can lead to correlations often being misinterpreted or misunderstood.

41
Q

Discuss strengths and weaknesses of qualitative data.

A

Gives a lot of rich detail and is much broader, as it allows participants to expand on thoughts and points and opinions. For this reason it usually has greater external validity as it provides greater insight into the participants world view. Difficult to analyse - does not lend itself to statistical testing → comparisons are hard to draw and patterns are hard to detect. This means that consequences are often based on subjective interpretation and can be biased → particularly if the researcher has a preconceived idea of what they will find.

42
Q

Discuss strengths and weaknesses of quantitative data.

A

Easy to analyse → conclusions can be drawn and comparisons can be made. More objective however narrower in scope → does not tend to reflect real life.

43
Q

What are strengths and weaknesses of primary data?

A

Authentic data collected by the researcher for the purposes of the investigation → fits the job. Costs time, effort, planning, and resources.

44
Q

What are strengths and weaknesses of secondary data?

A

Inexpensive and easily accessed. Researcher may discover that the information required already exists. May be substantial variation in the quality of the data → it may appear useful at first, but then turn out to be outdated or incomplete. The researcher may also not suit the needs of the researcher.

45
Q

What is meant by measures of central tendency?

A

Averages that give us information about the most typical values in a data set. There are three to consider: The mean, mode and median.

46
Q

What is the mean, mode and median?

A

Mean: The common average - derived from adding up all the values in a data set and dividing the total by the total number of values. The mean is the most sensitive as it includes all values from the data set in its calculation → more representative of the data as a whole. However because of this, the mean can be distorted easily by extreme values.
Mode: The mode is the most commonly occurring score / value in a data set. Sets can have two modes (Bi-Modal) or no mode if all of the values are different. The mode is a very crude measure - it if often completely different to to median and the mean and unrepresentative of the data set. For some data (data in categories) the mode is the only way to identify the most typical value. E.g. Asking a group of people what their favourite desert is.
Median: The median is the middle value in the data set when the values are arranged from lowest to highest.
In an even number of scores, the median is halfway between the two middle scores. A strength of the median, is that extreme values do not affect it. It is also easy to calculate. However it is less sensitive than the mean, as not all scores are included in the final calculation.

47
Q

What is meant by measures of dispersion?

A

Measures of dispersion are based on the spread of scores. That is, how far scores vary and differ from each other.

48
Q

What is meant by the range?

A

The range is a simple calculation of the spread of scores. It is calculated by taking the lowest scores from the highest and adding 1. The adding of 1 is to allow for the fact that scores are often rounded up or down. A strength of the range is that it is easy to calculate, however it only takes into account the most extreme values.

49
Q

What is the standard deviation?

A

A much more powerful measure of dispersion - it is a single value that tells us how far the scores deviate from the mean. The greater the standard deviation, the greater the dispersion. Within a condition in a study a large standard deviation suggests that not all ppts were affected by the IV, as there was a larger spread of data. A low standard deviation suggests values are clustered around the mean → implies all ppts answered in a similar way. The standard deviation is a very precise measure of dispersion, however it can be distorted by extreme values.

50
Q

What is a histogram?

A

In a histogram the bars touch each other, which shows that the data is continuous rather than discrete (like in a bar chart). The x-axis is made up of equal intervals of a single category. E.g. Test percentages broken down into 0-9, 10-19 etc. The y-axis represents the frequency of each interval. The frequency is ‘0’ the interval remains but without a bar.

51
Q

What is a bar chart?

A

Bar charts are used when data is divided into categories, otherwise known as discrete data. In the example, the two conditions are the two different types of drink. The conditions occupy the x-axis and the amount of each category occupies the y-axis. Bars are separated on a bar chart to denote that we are dealing with separate conditions.

52
Q

What is a line graph?

A

Line graphs also represent continuous data and use points connected by lines to show how something changes in value e.g. over time. Typically, the IV is plotted on the x-axis and the DV on the y-axis.

53
Q

What is a scattergram?

A

A type of graph that represents the strength and direction of a relationship between two co-variables in a correlational analysis. Unlike the other forms of graph, scattergrams depict an association rather than a difference. Either of the co-variables can occupy the x-axis and the other the y-axis. Each point on the graph corresponds to the x and y position of the co-variables.

54
Q

What is meant by normal distribution?

A

If you measure certain variables, the frequency of these measurements should form a bell shaped curve, which is symmetrical. Within a normal distribution most people are located in the middle of the curve, with very few at the extreme ends. The mean, mode and median all occupy the same mid-point on the curve. The tail ends of the curve never meet the x-axis (and therefore never reach zero) as more extreme scores are always possible.

55
Q

What is meant by skewed distribution?

A

Some data sets may produce skewed distributions - that is curves that lean to one side or the other. A positive skew is where most of the distribution is concentrated towards the left of the graph, resulting in a long tail on the right. Imagine a very difficult test in which most people got low marks with only a handful of students at the higher end → positive skew. The opposite occurs in a negative skew. A very easy test would produce a distribution where the bulk of the scores are concentrated on the right, resulting in the long tail of anomalous scores on the left. The mean, mode and median are different.

56
Q

Explain probability in psychology.

A

The accepted level of probability in psychology is 5% → P=0.05. In fact officially it is 5% or less → P is equal to or less than 0.05. This means that there is a 5% or less probability that the results obtained were down to chance and a 95% or more probability that the results were due to the manipulation of the IV.

57
Q

What is meant by a peer review?

A

Assessment of scientific work by specialists in the field.

58
Q

What are the main aims of peer review?

A

To allocate funding - should a project receive funding, is a project worthwhile etc. To validate the quality and relevance of research. To suggest amendments or improvements.

59
Q

Evaluate the peer review process.

A

Anonymity. Reviewers may use their anonymity as a way of criticising their rivals which could lead to the limited amount of funding available being allocated to other studies.
Publication Bias. Editors are more likely to want to publish ‘headline grabbing’ findings. They are also likely to favour research with positive results. Research that does not meet these criteria could be ignored, created a false impression of the current state of psychology.
Burying ground-breaking research. Opposition to mainstream theories may be ignored to maintain the status quo. Reviewers are usually established scientists and they tend to be overly critical of studies contradicting their own views and current opinion and favourable to those that match them. As a result, peer reviews could be slowing down the rate of change with a specific scientific discipline.

60
Q

One of the wider concerns for psychology and science in general is what the implications of research are for the economy. By this, we mean how does what we learn from findings of psychological research influence, affect, benefit or devalue the economy.
Examples of these implications are attachment research into the role of the father and the development of treatments for mental illness.

A

Attachment: Traditional research suggested that only the mother can perform the role of the mother. However more contemporary research has found that these tasks can be carried out by both parents. This could promote more flexible working hours and a shared responsibility for child care. If both parents can perform ‘mothering tasks’ then both parents can work and contribute to the economy more effectively.
Absence from work: Absenteeism from work costs the economy £15 billion pounds a year and a third of all absences are caused by ‘mild to moderate’ mental disorders. Psychological research into the causes and treatments of mental disorders therefore has an important role to play in supporting a healthy workforce. SSRIs, Tricyclics, Systematic Desensitisation, Flooding, and CBT can all be accessed via GPs. In many cases sufferers are able to manage their condition effectively and return to work. The economic benefit into such areas is considerable.

61
Q

Outline some strengths and weaknesses of case studies.

A

Able to offer rich and detailed insights that could shed light on some very unusual behaviours. Case studies may also contribute to our understanding of psychological phenomena e.g. HM confirmed the existence of separate STM and LTM stores. They could generate future hypotheses or lead to a theory being re-thought.
Findings cannot be easily generalised. Findings can be heavily influenced by researcher bias and subjectivity. Additionally the information provided by friends and family is subject to inaccuracies and decay → leads to reduced validity.

62
Q

Outline strengths and weaknesses of content analyses.

A

Ethical issues are less of a problem - many materials that may be studied may already exist in the public domain (newspapers, tv, personal ads, internet etc.). High in external validity. Can be used for qualitative and quantitative research.
Behaviour is studied indirectly - outside of the context in which it occurs → the researcher may attribute opinions and motivations to the speaker or writer that was not originally intended. Although modern researchers are aware of their own biases and take this into account when drawing conclusions (Reflexivity) this can still lead to a reduction in objectivity.

63
Q

What is reliability?

A

Consistency - if a particular measurement can be repeated then that measurement is described as being reliable. E.g. A ruler should find the same measurement for a particular object every time that object is measured. If there is a change in measurement then it should be because the object has changed. The same is true to psychological measurements e.g. IQ test - we would expect measurements taken on 1 day to be the same the next day - unless the item being measured has changed.

64
Q

Name and describe 2 ways of assessing reliability.

A

Test-retest reliability. Administering the same test to the same person / people on different occasions. The results are the same or at least very similar on both occasions then the test is said to be reliable. It is mainly used with questionnaires and psychological tests such as IQ tests, however it can also be used with interviews. Sufficient time needs to have passed between administering the test and the two results should be correlated - if the correlation is positive (0.8) the reliability is seen to be good.
Inter-observer reliability. Used in observational research, as every observer’s interpretation of events is subject to bias. Observers need to check that they are applying the behavioural categories in the same way - possibly through a pilot study. Observers should observe the same event but make separate observations. As above, these observations should then be correlated to assess for reliability. These form of reliability check can apply to all forms of observations inc. content analysis, although here it would be called inter-rater reliability and interviewers (inter-interviewer reliability).

65
Q

Outline how reliability can be improved in questionnaires.

A

Make sure questions are not complex or ambiguous. Replace some of the open questions (could be open to interpretation) with closed questions.

66
Q

Outline how reliability can be improved in interviews.

A

Make sure the same interviewer is used each time - if this is not possible then make sure proper training is provided. No leading or ambiguous questions. Structured and semi-structured interviews are better for ensuring validity than unstructured interviews.

67
Q

Outline how reliability can be improved in observations.

A

Ensure behavioural categories are operationalised - measureable and self-evident. Categories should not overlap and all possible behaviours should be covered.

68
Q

Outline how reliability can be improved in experiments.

A

Reliability in lab studies is easier to achieve due to the high levels of control. However reliability is more related to replication of a particular method rather than the reliability of a particular finding.
That being said, something that can affect the reliability of a finding is whether or not the participants were testing under the same conditions every time.

69
Q

What is meant by validity?

A

Whether or not a psychological study produces a result that is legitimate → does the observed effect represent what is actually out there in the real world. This includes whether or not the researcher managed to measure what they intended to measure and whether or not the results can be generalised to real life.

70
Q

What is meant by internal and external validity?

A

Internal Validity: Refers to whether the observed effects are due to the manipulation of the IV or some other factor. One major threat to internal validity is if participants respond to demand characteristics and act in the way they think they are expected to.
External Validity: Relates more to factors outside of the investigation. Do the findings represent other settings, populations and era. Ecological Validity: Being able to generalise findings from one setting to another -
particularly to everyday life. It is not about the naturalness of the study it is about the materials used.
Temporal Validity: This relates to whether or not the results hold true over time. E.g. Asch’s study was a child of it’s time and is not as applicable nowadays.

71
Q

Name and describe two ways of assessing validity.

A

Face validity. Does the study look good, i.e. does it appear to measure what it is supposed to be measuring.
Concurrent Validity. CV is demonstrated if the measure or scale provides similar of the same results as another, well recognised measure. Agreement is indicated if the correlation between the two scores is equal to or greater than 0.8.

72
Q

Explain how researchers could improve the validity in experimental research.

A

Using a control group can make it easier to be certain that the change in the IV caused the DV. Standardising procedures reduces the effect of participant reactivity and investigator effects on outcomes. The same can be achieved via single and double blind procedures.

73
Q

Explain how researchers could improve the validity in observational research.

A

Use covert observations where possible. Make sure behaviour categories are not ambiguous and do not overlap.

74
Q

Explain how researchers could improve the validity in questionnaires.

A

Researchers often include a lie scale to control for social desirability bias and to check for consistency of participant answers. Reassuring participants that results will remain anonymous can also improve validity.

75
Q

What is meant by a Paradigm and a Paradigm Shift?

A

Paradigm → A shared set of assumptions and methods - sets scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines. Kuhn (1962) suggests that social sciences lack a universally accepted paradigm → There are too many internal disagreement and has to many conflicting approaches to quality as a science.
Progress within a science occurs when there is a scientific revolution → a handful of researchers begin to question the accepted paradigm → when the critique has gained enough pace and popularity a paradigm shift occurs.

76
Q

What is a theory?

A

A set of general laws or principles that have the ability to explain particular events or behaviours.

77
Q

What is meant by theory construction?

A

The gathering of evidence via direct observation.

78
Q

What is meant by hypothesis testing?

A

To make sure that clear and precise predictions can be made on the basis of a theory → an essential part of a theory is that it can be scientifically tested.

79
Q

What is the theory of falsifiability?

A

Popper (1934). Genuine scientific theories should hold themselves up for hypothesis testing and the possibility of being proven false. Even theories that have been repeatedly and successfully tested is not always a true theory → it has not yet been proven false. Poppers draws a line between good science, in which theories are constantly challenged, and pseudosciences that could not be falsified. Theories that survive most attempts to falsify them become the strongest - not because they are true - but because the have withstood attempts to prove them false. This is why a hypothesis should always be accompanied by a null hypothesis.

80
Q

What is replicability?

A

Another important element according to Popper. If a scientific theory is to be trusted, the findings from it must be shown to be repeatable across a number of different contexts and circumstances. Has a role in determining reliability and validity of both methods and findings. In order for replication to be possible, psychologists must report their investigations with as much precision and rigor as possible.

81
Q

What is objectivity and the empirical method?

A

Researcher must keep a ‘critical distance’ during research - they must remain objective. Objectivity is the basis of the empirical method → emphasis on the importance of data collection based on direct, sensory experience e.g. the experimental and observational method. A theory cannot claim to be scientific unless it has been empirically tested and verified.