Y1 Module 4 / Y2 Module 1 - Approaches in Psychology

Question 1

Outline the work of Wilhelm Wundt.

Answer 1

Opened the first ever lab dedicated to psychological enquiry. Wanted describe the nature of consciousness. He and his co-workers recorded their conscious thoughts hoping to break them down into their constituent parts - Introspection.

Question 2

Outline some strengths of Wundt’s work.

Answer 2

Used some scientific methods. High controlled conditions used the same stimulus every time. Used standardised instructions allowed procedures to be repeated. Marked the separation of modern psychology from its broader philosophical roots.

Question 3

Describe the emergence of psychology as a science.

Answer 3

The scientific status of introspection was being questioned by behaviourists e.g. (Watson). Watson did not like that introspection produced subjective data. Cannot be used to develop general principles. Introspection also focusses on ‘private’ mental processes. Watson believed scientific psychology should study phenomena that can be observed and measured Birth of the behaviourist approach. Watson and Skinner brought the language, rigor and methods of the natural sciences into psychology. Used carefully controlled lab studies that would go on to dominate discipline many psychologists still rely on the experimental method.

Question 4

Outline classical conditioning as an explanation for behaviour.

Answer 4

Learning by Association.
US→ UR
US + NS → UR
CS(NS) → CR

Question 5

Outline operant conditioning as an explanation for behaviour.

Answer 5

Learning by reinforcement and punishment. Positive and negative reinforcement - Explain. Punishment - Explain. Reinforced behaviour is repeated and punished behaviour dies out.

Question 6

Describe one study in which classical conditioning was investigated.

Answer 6

Pavlov’s Dog - to assess learning through association. Noticed dogs would salivate at food UR + US. Paired the food with a bell (NS) → Dog would salivate at the sound of the bell. Dog has learned to associate the bell with food and will salivating.

Question 7

Describe one study in which operant conditioning was investigated.

Answer 7

Skinner’s rats - investigate the role of reinforcement on behaviour. Rats in a box would get a food pellet (reward) every time they press a lever and so would repeat the behaviour. In addition they would learn to repeat behaviours to avoid unpleasant stimuli. Rats learned through reinforcement to perform behaviours.

Question 8

Outline some real world applications / support for behaviourism.

Answer 8

Token Economy systems in prisons and other institutions. Prisoners earn tokens (rewards) through desirable behaviour, which can go towards something bigger. Shows operant conditioning in action.

Question 9

Behaviourism has been credited with increasing the scientific credibility of psychology. Explain this.

Answer 9

Uses the language of the natural sciences → focuses on measuring observable behaviour within controlled settings. Emphasises the importance of scientific processes - replicability & objectivity. Can be used to create general laws of behaviour.

Question 10

Explain environmental determinism in relation to the behaviourist approach.

Answer 10

Behaviourism suggest that all of our behaviour comes as a response to interactions with the environment. Doesn’t take other influences into account - not everybody acts without thinking - there is proof that we can choose our actions. Limitation of the approach.

Question 11

What does it mean that behaviourism has a mechanistic view of behaviour? Are there better ways of viewing behaviour?

Answer 11

Animals and humans are seen as passive (machine like) responders to the environment. No conscience or insight. Cognitive approach & Social learning theory - emphasis on mental processes. These allow us to decide how to respond to a stimulus, making us more active in our behaviour.

Question 12

Outline the basic assumption of social learning theory. Illustrate your answer with an example of behaviour.

Answer 12

Behaviour is learned through observation and imitation. Vicarious reinforcement (indirect reinforcement of behaviour). Watching someone be a bully. Copying behaviour because of the social acceptance gained by the bully.

Question 13

Use an example of behaviour to explain what social learning theorists mean by mediational processes in learning.

Answer 13

According to SLT, mediational processes are cognitive processes that allow us to choose whether or not to act out a behaviour. Attention, retention, motivation, motor reproduction. Seeing the bully’s behaviour; remembering it; seeing the positive outcome for the bully; being able to carry out the behaviour.

Question 14

What do social learning theorists mean by the term identification? Illustrate your answer using an example.

Answer 14

People are most likely to imitate behaviour of people they identify with (role models). These are usually similar age, gender, charismatic, attractive etc. Little brother is going to imitate big brother.

Question 15

Describe one study in which social learning theory was investigated.

Answer 15

Bandura’s Bobo doll study. Will children imitate violent behaviour? Children observed adults being violent towards a bobo doll. When put in the same position the children imitated the behaviour they saw. → Children imitate the violent behaviour carried out by a role model.

Question 16

Why does SLT provide a much more comprehensive account of behaviour than behaviourism?

Answer 16

Behaviourist approach suggests humans have no choice in their behaviour. Behaviour is stimulus – response. Recognises the importance of cognitive factors. SLT suggests that mediational processes help to choose whether or not a behaviour is worth carrying out - has a cognitive aspect to it.

Question 17

How does SLT compare to behaviourism in terms of determinism?

Answer 17

Takes cognitive factors into account. Gives a much more comprehensive account of behaviour. Much less deterministic than the behaviourist approach. Reciprocal vs. environmental determinism.

Question 18

Outline two limitations of social learning theory.

Answer 18

Underestimates the influence of biological factors. Testosterone (boys were consistently more aggressive than girls in the Bobo doll study). Over-reliance on lab studies. Demand characteristics could be an issue. (e.g the Bobo doll study).

Question 19

Outline two features of the cognitive approach.

Answer 19

Approach focusses on internal mental processes. This is in direct contrast to the behaviourist approach. Interested in memory, perception and thinking - private processes and cannot be observed or measured. Inferences are made about behaviour using models.

Question 20

Use an example of behaviour to explain what cognitive psychologists mean by inferences.

Answer 20

The process by which cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about mental processes. This is based on observed behaviour. E.g. Memory - psychologists observe memory in action → make inferences about duration and capacity of memory.

Question 21

Briefly discuss one key difference between the behaviourist approach and the cognitive approach in investigating behaviour.

Answer 21

Behaviourism - focus on observable and measurable behaviour - uses lab studies and rigorous scientific methods. Cognitive psychology focuses on internal and private mental processes. Uses theoretical and computer models to make inferences about mental processes based on observed behaviour.

Question 22

Outline the role of schema in cognitive psychology.

Answer 22

Schema are bundles of information that people have about events, concepts, situations and people. Schema help us to interpret information from our environment and help us to build a set of beliefs and expectations for the world and future.

Question 23

What is machine reductionism and why is it a criticism of the cognitive approach?

Answer 23

The cognitive approach uses computer models to make inferences about mental processes. There are many similarities between the human mind and computers. This ignores the influence of human emotion - which computers do not have. For example research has shown that human memory is influenced by anxiety.

Question 24

The cognitive approach has been praised for being “less” deterministic than other approaches. Explain why this is the case - refer to other approaches in your answer.

Answer 24

The cognitive approach is founded on soft determinism
It recognises the role of free will, however states that we can only exercise this free will within the realms of what we know. This is “soft” in comparison to the behaviourist approach for example. Behaviourism = environmental determinism - we are passive responders to the environment - stimulus - response relationships - no free will - much harder form of determinism.

Question 25

Without referring to determinism, outline 2 further strengths of the cognitive approach.

Answer 25

Has been effectively applied to a wide range of real life scenarios. The explanation and treatment of depression. Explanation through focussing on negative and irrational thoughts and Treatment through challenging the irrational thoughts.
Scientific credibility. Rigorous and controlled methods - lab studies to produce reliable and objective data. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience has allowed the fields of biology and cognitive psychology.

Question 26

Why has it been argued that research on cognitive processes may lack external validity?

Answer 26

Cognitive psychologists are only able to infer mental processes based on observations. Can lead to cognitive psychology being quite abstract and theoretical. Studies on mental processes are also often carried out using artificial stimuli (e.g. memory).

Question 27

Briefly outline the assumptions of the biological approach.

Answer 27

Everything that is psychological, is first biological → we must look at biological structures to understand behaviour. Gene, neurochemistry, nervous systems and evolution. Understanding the brain structure and function means we will be able to understand thoughts and behaviours. The mind lives in the brain - everything has a physical basis.

Question 28

Outline how behavioural geneticists investigate a genetic basis of behaviour.

Answer 28

Twin studies. Concordance rates - how similar the twins are in particular traits. If MZ twins have a higher concordance rates than DZ twins then a genetic cause is implied, rather than an environmental cause. This is because MZ twins share 100%.

Question 29

Identify and discuss two strengths of the biological approach in psychology.

Answer 29

Scientific methods of investigation. fMRIs, EEGs, Twin and Family studies - very precise. Accurately measures data - no bias. Reliable.
Real Life Applications. Increased understanding of biochemical processes → development of psychoactive drugs. These have helped a number of people deal with conditions such as depression and schizophrenia. This is a strength as it has revolutionised treatment for patients and has lead them to be able to lead normal lives.

Question 30

Why is Correlation vs. Causation a problem for the biological approach?

Answer 30

Determining causality. Explanations for mental illness through neurotransmitters → Evidence comes from drug trials → If the drug reduces symptoms, then it is assumes the neurochemical in the drug causes the disorder. This is like claiming the lack of paracetamol causes a headache. An association between two variables has been established, however this does not mean one has caused the other. → Limitation.

Question 31

What is meant by genotype?

Answer 31

A particular set of genes a person possesses.

Question 32

What is meant by phenotype?

Answer 32

Specific characteristics that a person displays determined by their genes and their environment.

Question 33

Explain what is meant by evolution and behaviour. Illustrate your answer with one human or non-human example of evolution and behaviour.

Answer 33

Evolution and behaviour refers to Darwin’s theory of natural selection. This means that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances a species likelihood of survival will be passed onto future generations. E.g. An animal that has a slightly different colour to other members of the species may find that this provides an extra level of camouflage. This could then lead to less of the animals getting caught by predators and consequently more of the animals with the novel colour will get the opportunity to pass on their genes.

Question 34

Why is the biological approach deterministic and what are the wider implications of this?

Answer 34

Sees human behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes over which we have no control. Implications e.g. Legal system → offenders are seen as morally and legally responsible for their actions. The discovery of a criminal gene may complicate this principle.

Question 35

Why is it argued that nature and nurture cannot be separated in the biological approach?

Answer 35

MZ and DZ twins, family members and siblings all share genetic similarities → biological approach would argue that similarities in looks or behaviour are due to genes. 1 confounding variable is being ignored - all of these people usually share the same environment. It is difficult to establish causality because it is not 100% possibly to untangle the roles of genes and the environment.

Question 36

Identify two divisions of the human nervous system.

Answer 36

Peripheral and Central Nervous System.

Question 37

What is the role of the CNS?

Answer 37

CNS is made up of brain and spinal cord. Brain - centre of all consciousness. Outer later = cerebral cortex → higher functions. Spinal Cord - extension of the brain – responsible for reflex actions.

Question 38

Outline the function of the peripheral nervous system.

Answer 38

Transmits messages to and from the CNS. Further divided into ANS (governs vital functions) and SNS (controls muscle movement and receives information from senses).

Question 39

Distinguish between the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

Answer 39

Two sub-divisions of the PNS - ANS governs vital functions e.g. heartrate and breathing. SNS controls muscle movement and receives information from senses.

Question 40

Outline the role of adrenaline in the fight or flight response.

Answer 40

Adrenaline triggers physiological changes in the body (e.g. increased heart rate), which are necessary for for the fight or flight response.

Question 41

Define what is meant by the endocrine system.

Answer 41

The endocrine system works alongside the nervous system to control vital functions in the body. The endocrine system works much more slowly than the nervous system, but has very widespread effects. It is responsible for instructing various glands to release hormones into the bloodstream.

Question 42

Define the term gland. Give one example.

Answer 42

A gland is an organ in the body which synthesizes substances such as hormones. The thyroid gland, for example, produces thyroxine which affects cells in the heart (increasing heart rate). It also affects cells throughout the body, affecting metabolic rates (growth).

Question 43

Define the term hormone. Give one example.

Answer 43

Chemical substances that circulate in the bloodstream and only affect target organs. They are produced in large quantities, but disappear quickly. Their effects are very powerful. Testosterone.

Question 44

Outline one difference between the nervous system and the endocrine system.

Answer 44

One difference between the two is the time it takes for the systems to respond to stimuli. The nervous system reacts from electrical and chemical transmission and the response is near instantaneous. The endocrine system reacts much more slowly, but therefore much longer lasting and widespread effects.

Question 45

Explain the actions of the autonomic nervous system in the fight or flight response.

Answer 45

Threat is detected. Sympathetic nervous system triggers the release of adrenaline into the blood. Causes physiological changes in the body, ready for fight or flight (e.g. dilated pupils, increased sweating, shutdown of digestion). After the threat has passed the parasympathetic nervous system kicks in to put the body back into its resting state.

Question 46

What is a neuron?

Answer 46

Neurons are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical signals in the nervous system.

Question 47

Outline the function of a motor, relay and sensory neuron.

Answer 47

Motor neurons connect the central nervous system to effectors such as muscles and glands.
Relay neurons connect the sensory neurons to motor neurons and other relay neurons.
Sensory neurons carry messages from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system.

Question 48

Describe the structure of a neuron.

Answer 48

The cell body of a neuron includes the nucleus which contains the genetic material of the cell.
Dendrites are branch like structures that carry nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons towards the cell body.
The axon carries impulses away from the cell body down the length of the neuron.
The myelin sheath covers the axon to protect and speed up electrical transmission of the impulse.
Nodes of Ranvier are the gaps between the myelin sheath these speed up the transmission of impulses by forcing the impulse to jump across the gaps.
Terminal buttons are at the end of the axon; these communicate with the next neuron across the synapse.

Question 49

Explain and distinguish between electric and chemical transmission in relation to neurons.

Answer 49

Electric transmission happens within the neuron. This changes the neuron from being negatively charged to positively charged when activated by a stimulus. This then creates the electrical impulse that travels to the end of the neuron.
Chemical transmission occurs between neurons – when the electrical impulse reaches the end of the neuron it triggers the release of neurotransmitters, which diffuse across the synapse.

Question 50

Explain the function of a neurotransmitter. Identify one neurotransmitter.

Answer 50

A neurotransmitter is a chemical released from the presynaptic nerve that relays a signal across the synapse. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synapse and is taken up by the postsynaptic receptor site. The chemical message is then converted back into an electrical impulse. For example, acetylcholine is found where the motor neuron meets a muscle and cause the muscle to contract.

Question 51

In term of synaptic transmission, explain what is meant by inhibition and excitation.

Answer 51

Serotonin has an inhibitory effect of the receiving neuron by causing the neuron to become more negatively charged which results in it being less likely to fire the electrical impulse. However, adrenaline’s an excitatory effect on the neuron by making it more positively charged which results in it being more likely to fire the electrical impulse.

Question 52

Outline the structure of personality according to the psychodynamic approach.

Answer 52

Personality is in three parts. The id - is the pleasure principle, wants what it wants when it wants it. The ego - the reality principle umpire for id and superego works out what is realistic for the time, deals with all conflicts and the superego - the morality principle, decides what’s right and wrong.

Question 53

What is meant by ‘the unconscious’ in the psychodynamic approach?

Answer 53

Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious, biological instincts that influences our behaviour without us being aware of it. The unconscious can also block traumatic experiences from our past, repress them. The preconscious is what we are only aware of when we have limited control over our thoughts, for example when we’re dreaming, or through parapraxes, for example saying something out loud when you just thought you were thinking it.

Question 54

Why is the psychodynamic approach deterministic and what type of determinism applies to the approach?

Answer 54

All behaviours, current and future are determined by the id, ego and superego. Freud believed when it came to human behaviour there was no such thing as ‘accidents’ even when it comes to slips of the tongue, Freud believed these types of actions are driven by unconscious forces and has ‘deep symbolic meaning’. No free will.
Psychic Determinism. All our behaviours are determined by unconscious forces (id, ego and superego) → provides the illusion of free will, as we are not aware of what controls us and so we believe we are in control.

Question 55

Identify and discuss two limitations of the psychodynamic approach in psychology.

Answer 55

The case study method, Freud’s theories were based upon a few individual cases of patients in therapy. This suggests Freud’s ideas cannot be made as a universal claim as the people whom which he based his theories on were psychologically abnormal. Freud’s interpretation of these patients only applied to them as individuals and Freud’s interpretation was very individualistic in that no other psychologist would’ve drawn the same conclusion.
It was argued that Freud’s theories were weak as they cannot be tested empirically, they do not meet the scientific criterion of falsification. This means that although Freud’s theories cannot be disproved, as of yet, it cannot be proved either meaning this is a weakness of Freud’s. This means the psychodynamic approach is classed as a pseudoscience instead of being actual scientific.

Question 56

A strength of the Psychodynamic approach is its influence and explanatory power. Explain this.

Answer 56

Freud’s theory had a huge impact on psychology, the psychodynamic approach had a large influence on psychology. It’s used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality development and gender. It also focuses on our connections with a range of people including family and friends, in childhood and then in later life.

Question 57

Identify and outline the practical applications that came with the Psychodynamic Approach.

Answer 57

Responsible for the birth of a new form of therapy – psychoanalysis. Employs a wide range of techniques to access the unconscious. Forerunner to many modern-day psychotherapies and although inappropriate for many severe mental illnesses, it has been successfully with mild neuroses.

Question 58

What do psychodynamic psychologists mean by a defence mechanism?

Answer 58

The ego resolves conflict between the id and the superego through the use of defence mechanisms. E.g. The unconscious can repress traumatic experiences from your conscious memory. Repression is a defence mechanism.

Question 59

Outline two features of the humanistic perspective in psychology.

Answer 59

Self-actualisation - every person has an innate desire to reach their full potential - personal growth is an essential and innate part of being human.
Congruence - In order for personal growth to be achieved an individual’s concept of self and their must be broadly equivalent (congruent) to their ideal self.

Question 60

What do humanistic psychologists mean by conditions of worth? Give an example of how a parent might set conditions of worth on his or her child.

Answer 60

Lack of unconditional love / unconditional positive regard. A parent who sets boundaries or limits on their love for their child (conditioning of worth) are storing up psychological problems for that child. A parent may say e.g. I will only love you if you are successful or I will love you most if you do this…

Question 61

Identify and explain why the humanistic approach is classed as one of the only non-reductionist approaches. Refer to other approaches in your answer.

Answer 61

Humanistic approach rejects the idea of breaking down behaviour. Behaviourism explains behaviour in terms of simple stimulus response and the biological approach reduces everything to its basic physiological components. Humanists believe that the only way to understand the subjective experience is to consider the whole person. Holism is advocated, rather than reductionism.

Question 62

What is meant by self-actualisation?

Answer 62

Every human has the innate tendency to achieve their full potential - this mean reaches the top levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Personal growth is an essential part of life - it is concerned with developing and changing to become a fulfilled, satisfied and goal orientated human being.

Question 63

Explain one problem with the concept of self-actualisation.

Answer 63

Cultural Dependency. Related to individualist cultures where the individual is at the centre. Other cultures (collectivist cultures) place more emphasis on the needs of the group and interdependence. This fact does not go well with the humanistic approach, meaning it would be mostly relevant within the culture it was developed.

Question 64

Many of the concepts used in the humanistic approach are very abstract - why is this a problem for the approach?

Answer 64

The fact that a lot of the concepts are abstract means they are largely untestable. Concepts such as congruence and self-actualisation are problematic to assess under experimental conditions. Makes objectivity and replication difficult - lowered validity.

Question 65

The Humanistic approach has been praised for it’s positivity and for “bringing the person back into psychology”. Explain this - refer to other approaches in your answer.

Answer 65

Humanists promote a positive image of the human condition. Psychodynamic - Freud sees us all of us as slaves to our past and claims we all exist somewhere between ‘common unhappiness’ and ‘total despair’. Humanistic Approach - suggests that all people are basically good and that we are all free to work towards the achievement of our potential.

Question 66

What is meant by the nature – nurture debate?

Answer 66

The debate whether human behaviour is more influenced by inherited biological factors (nature) or by the environment (nurture).

Question 67

Describe which side of the arguments the approaches we know fall. (nature-nurture)

Answer 67

Biological Approach → Nature.
Behaviourism & SLT → Nurture.
Freud → Nature (behaviour comes from innate drives) & Nurture (relationships with parents play a crucial role).
Humanistic → Nurture (parents, friends and wider society have an impact on a person’s self-concept).
Cognitive → Nature (information processing, schema are innate) & Nurture (constantly being refined through experience).

Question 68

What is meant by reductionism?

Answer 68

The belief that human behaviour can be most effectively explained by breaking it down into its constituent parts.

Question 69

Explain what approaches are / are not reductionist.

Answer 69

Behaviourism – breaks up complex behaviour into stimulus response for ease of study in a lab.
Biological – explains behaviour and mental states on the neural or genetic level.
Cognitive – machine reductionism → presenting people are information processing machines and ignoring emotions.
Psychodynamic – reduces the influence on behaviour down to innate biological drives and instincts, however also holistic due to the belief that personality is made up of three dynamic parts.
Humanistic – holistic → investigates all aspects of the human involved.

Question 70

What is meant by determinism?

Answer 70

Determinism proposes that all behaviour has an internal or external cause is thus is predictable.

Question 71

Explain what approaches are / are not deterministic.

Answer 71

Behaviourism – environmental determinism – all behaviour is determined by external forces and are unable to be controlled.
SLT – Reciprocal determinism – we are controlled by our environment and influence it in return through our behaviour.
Biological approach – genetic determinism – most of our behaviour is through innate influences.
Psychodynamic – psychic determinism – we think we have free will, but this is an illusion, as all of our behaviour is controlled by unconscious forces.
Cognitive – Soft determinism – we can choose our behaviours but can only act within the realm of what we know.
Humanistic – Free will – we are active agents who determine our own development.