[Y1] Cells Flashcards
What is Magnification?
- By how much an image is enlarged under a microscope.
- It is controlled by the power of the lens used.
What is Resolution?
- The minimum distance between two objects at which a microscope can distinguish them as separate entities.
- It is controlled by the wavelength of the illumination used.
Why aren’t Light Microscopes used in labs? And what is used instead?
- Light microscopes have a poor resolution as a result of a relatively long wavelength of light.
- (as of 1930s) electron microscopes have been used instead.
What are the two types of Electron Microscopes?
- Transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
- Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
What are the Advantages of TEMs?
- High Magnification
- High Resolution
- due to shorter wavelength
- Focuses using a condenser electromagnet.
- 2D photomicrograph
What are the Advantages of SEMs?
- High Magnification
- High Resolution
- due to shorter wavelength
- Focuses using a condenser electromagnet.
- Produces a 3D image.
- Does not require a thin specimen.
What are the Disadvantages of TEMs?
- Living specimen cannot be used.
- Must be in a vacuum.
- Must be a thin cut specimen.
- Complicated preparation may create artefacts.
- Non-coloured image.
What are the Disadvantages of SEMs?
- Living specimen cannot be used.
- Must be in a vacuum.
- Complicated preparation may create artefacts.
- Non-coloured image.
Who is the actual size of a specimen calculated?
Image Size / Magnification
- remember to convert your units.
What are the units of size and their magnitude (compared to ‘m’)?
km 1x10^3 m 1x10^0 cm 1x10^-2 mm 1x10^-3 μm 1x10^-6 nm 1x10^-9
What is an eyepiece graticule and how can it be used?
- A glass disc with a scale etched on it.
- It can be placed in the eyepiece of a microscope to be used to measure the size of an object.
- However, this will not directly measure the object, as the objective lens will magnify it to a different degree.
Before using an eyepiece graticule, what must you do and how is this done?
- It must be calibrated for a particular objective lens.
- This can be done by using a stage micrometre, this also has a scale etched onto it.
What is Cell Fraction and Centrifugation?
- The process by which cells are broken up and their organelles are separated, by size, ready for study.
What conditions are made for Cell Fraction and Centrifugation?
Cold: to reduce enzyme activity that could damage the organelle.
Buffered: to maintain a constant pH and prevent protein damage.
Isotonic: to prevent cell organelles from bursting or shrinking bt osmosis.
What are the 3 stages of Cell Fraction and Centrifugation?
- Homogenisation.
- Filter (filtration).
- Ultracentrifugation.
What happens in the 1st stage of Cell Fraction and Centrifugation?
Homogenisation:
- Cells are broken up by a homogeniser (blender) releasing the organelle.
What happens in the 2nd stage of Cell Fraction and Centrifugation?
Filter:
- Tissue is filtered through a sieve to remove insoluble material (e.g. cell wall, large pieces of unhomogenised tissue, connective tissue).
What happens in the 3rd stage of Cell Fraction and Centrifugation?
Ultracentrifugation:
- The centrifuge is filled with filtrate and spun a slow speed so the heaviest organelle (e.g. nuclei) are forced to the bottom and form a thin pellet.
- The fluid at the top (the supernatant) is removed and re-spun at a faster speed to gain the next heaviest organelle (e.g. chloroplast).
- This process is repeated again until all of the organelles have been separated.
What organelles are present in animal cells?
- Cell-surface membrane
- Nucleus
- Cytoplasm
- Mitochondria
- Golgi apparatus (with vesicle)
- Lysosome
- 80s Ribosome
- Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
What organelles are present in plant cells?
- Cell-surface membrane.
- Nucleus.
- Cytoplasm.
- Mitochondria.
- Golgi apparatus (with vesicle).
- Lysosome.
- 80s Ribosome.
- Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
- Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
- Cell wall.
- Cell vacuole.
- Chloroplasts
What organelles are present in bacterial cells?
- Cell-surface membrane.
- 70s Ribosome.
- Cell wall.
- Capsule.
- Pilus.
- Flagellum.
- Chromosomal DNA in the nucleoid region.
- Cytoplasm.
- Plasmid.
Are viruses living?
No, as they are not made up of cells.
What organelles are present in viruses?
- Attachment protiens
- Lipid envelope
- Nucleoprotiens
- RNA / DNA
- Capsid
- Matrix
Describe viral attachment proteins.
These are proteins that stick out f the virus and is used to attach on to host cells.
Describe a viral lipid envelope.
The outer-most layer of a virus, this is derived from host cells.
Describe viral nucleoproteins.
Accessory proteins found inside a capsid.
Describe viral DNA/RNA.
The virus’s genetic information, that is also injected into host cells, found inside a capsid.
Describe a viral capsid.
Protein coat holding DNA / RNA.
Describe a viral matrix.
A Protein layer inside the envelope.
Describe a eukaryotic cell-surface membrane.
The lipid/protein membrane found on the surface of an animal cell and just inside the cell wall of other cells.
What is the function of a eukaryotic cell-surface membrane?
- Regulates the movement of substance into and out of the cell.
- It also has receptor molecules on it, which allows it to respond to chemicals (like hormones).
Describe a eukaryotic nucleus.
- A large organelle surrounded by a nuclear envelope (double membrane), which contains many pores.
- The nucleus contains chromosomes (which are made from protein-bound linear DNA) and one or more structures call a nucleolus
What is the function of a eukaryotic nucleus?
The nucleus contains the cell’s activities, by controlling the transcription of DNA, to code for proteins.
The Pores allow substances (e.g. RNA) to move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
The nucleolus makes ribosomes.
Describe a eukaryotic mitochondrion.
They are usually oval-shaped.
They have a double membrane (proof of endosymbiosis) - the inner one is folded in to form structures called cristae.
Inside is the matrix, which contains enzymes involved in respiration.
What is the function of a eukaryotic mitochondrion?
The site of aerobic respiration where ATP is produced.
They are found in large numbers in cells that are very active and requires a lot of energy.
Describe a eukaryotic chloroplast?
- A small, flattened structure found in plant and algal cells.
- It’s surrounded by a double membrane, and also has membranes inside the thylakoid membranes.
- Theses membranes are stacked up in some parts of the chloroplast to from grana.
- Grana are linked together by lamellae - thin pieces of thylakoid membrane.
What is the function of a eukaryotic chloroplast?
- The site where photosynthesis takes place.
- Some part of photosynthesis happens in the grana, and other parts happen in the stroma (a thick fluid found in chloroplasts
Describe a eukaryotic golgi apparatus?
- A group of fluid-filled, membrane-bound flattened sacs.
- Vesicles are often seen at the edge of the sacs.
What is the function of a eukaryotic Golgi apparatus?
- Adds carbohydrates to proteins to form glycoproteins.
- Produces secretory enzymes.
- Transports, modifies and stores lipids.
- It also makes lysosomes.
Describe a eukaryotic golgi vesicle?
- A small fluid-filled sac in the cytoplasm, surrounded by a membrane and produces by the golgi apparatus.
What is the function of a eukaryotic golgi vesicle?
- Stores lipids and proteins made by the golgi apparatus and transports them out of the cell (via the cell-surface membrane).
Describe a eukaryotic lysosome?
- A round organelle surrounded by a membrane with no clear internal structure.
- It’s a type of golgi vesicle.
What is the function of a eukaryotic lysosome?
- Contains digestive enzymes called lysozyme that hydrolyses material.
- Releases enzymes to the outside of the cell (exocytosis) to destroy material.
- Digests invading cells and breaks down worn-out components of the cell to re-use.
- Completely breaks down the cell after they have died (autolysis)
Describe a eukaryotic ribosome?
[What ribosomes are found in prokaryotic cells?]
[80s ribosomes]
- A very small organelle that wither floats free in the cytoplasm of is attaches to the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
- It’s made up of protein and RNA.
- It’s not surrounded by a membrane.
[70s Ribosomes are in prokaryotes]
What is the function of a eukaryotic ribosome?
- The site where proteins are made.
Describe a eukaryotic rough endoplasmic reticulum?
- A system of membranes enclosing a fluid-filled space.
- The surface is covered with ribosomes.
What is the function of a eukaryotic rough endoplasmic reticulum?
- Provides a large surface area for the synthesis of proteins and glycoproteins.
Describe a eukaryotic smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
- Similar to the rough endoplasmic reticulum, but with no ribosomes.
What is the function of a eukaryotic smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
- Synthesis, stores and processes lipids and carbohydrates.
Describe a cell wall.
- A rigid structure that surrounds cells in plants, algae and fungi.
- In plants and algae it’s made mainly of carbohydrate cellulose.
- In fungi, it’s made of chaitin.
What is the function of a cell wall?
- Supports cells and prevents them from changing shape.
Describe a eukaryotic cell vacuole.
- A membrane-bound organelle found in the cytoplasm of plant cells.
- It contains cell sap - a weak solution of sugar and salts.
- The surrounding membrane is called the tonoplast.
What is the function of a eukaryotic cell vacuole?
- Helps to maintain pressure inside the cell and keeps the cell rigid.
- This stops plants wilting.
- Acts as a temporary sugar and amino acid store.
- Can store pigments (e.g. to colour petals to attract pollinators).
Describe a prokaryotic Plasmid.
- Circular genetic material found in the nucleoid region of a cell.
What is the function of a prokaryotic plasmid?
- Processes genes that may aid the survival of bacteria in adverse conditions
- (e.g. produces enzymes that break down antibiotics)
Describe a prokaryotic flagella.
- A tail like organelle at the back of the cell.
- There may be more than one.
What is the function of a prokaryotic flagella?
- Used for locomotion (moving around).
Describe a prokaryotic capsule
- A mucilaginous layer of slime.
What is the function of a prokaryotic capsule
- Protects bacterium from other cells and helps groups of bacteria to stick together for further protection.
Describe a prokaryotic pili.
- A thin, rigid fiber made of protein that protrudes from the cell surface.
What is the function of a prokaryotic Pili?
- To attach a bacterial cell to specific surfaces or to other cells
Describe the prokaryotic nucleoid.
The nucleoid is the region of the cell that contains primary DNA material
Describe a prokaryotic cell wall.
- 10 - 80nm thick, made of murein.
What is the function of a prokaryotic cell wall?
- Supports cells and prevents them from changing shape.
Describe a viral attachment protein.
Proteins that stick out of the virus.
The virus either has this or a lipid membrane.
What is the function of a viral attachment protein?
This attaches on the surface of a specific host cell, in order to inject its genetic material into the host
Describe a viral capsid.
A protein coat that encloses the cells nucleic acid.
What is the function of a viral capsid?
To contain the viruses nucleic acid.
Describe a viral lipid envelope.
This surrounds the capsid in some cells (which don’t have attachment proteins).
What is the function of a viral lipid envelope?
To attach onto host cells, and acts as another form of protection for the viruses nucleic acid.
What are the two types of cell division?
- Mitosis: 2 daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
- Meiosis: 4 daughter cells have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Describe the two parts of a chromosome.
- Centromere: centre of the chromosome
- 2 Chromatids: each an identical copy of DNA from the parent cell
What happens before mitosis?
Interphase
What is interphase?
A period of considerable cellular activity that includes replication of DNA. The DNA remains joined at their centromere.
What are the stages of mitosis?
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
What happens during the prophase?
- Chromosomes condense
- (Animal cells) two centrioles move to opposite ends and develop spindle fibres.
- The nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope breaks down.
What happens during the metaphase?
- Microtubules attach to the centromere and pull the chromosomes along the spindle apparatus.
- These arrange themselves across the equator of the cell.
What happens during the anaphase?
- The centromere divide into two and the spindle fibres pull the individual chromatids.
- Mitochondria gather around spindle fibres and provide energy to it.
- Chromatids move rapidly to opposite poles.
What happens during the Telophase?
- Chromosomes reach their poles and become longer and thinner.
- Chromosomes disappear, leaving widely spread chromatin.
- Spindle fibres disintegrate.
- Nuclear envelope and nucleolus re-form.
What happens during cytokinesis?
The cytoplasm divides.
How do prokaryotic cells divide?
Binary fission.
What happens during binary fission?
- Circular DNA molecules replicate and both copies attach to the cell membrane.
- The plasmids replicate
- Cell membrane begins to grow between the 2 DNA molecules and begin to pinch inwards (dividing the cytoplasm into 2)
- A new cell wall forms between the two molecules of DNA.
Dividing this into two identical daughter cells, each with a single copy of circular DNA and a variable number of plasmids
Do viruses undergo cell division?
No.
How do viruses replicate?
- They attach to their host cell with attachment proteins.
- They then inject their nucleic acid into the host cell.
- This provides ‘instructions’ for the host cell’s metabolic processes to start producing viral components.
What are the three stages of the cell cycle?
- Interphase.
- Nuclear Division.
- Cytokinesis.