[Y1] Biological Molecules Flashcards
What are monomers?
Small molecules that combine to form larger chains of molecules.
What are polymers?
Large molecules made up of repeated smaller molecules.
What are the two main usages of carbohydrates?
- respiritory substrates
- structural components
What are carbohydrate monomers called?
Monosaccharides
What are carbohydrate dimers called?
Disaccharides
What are carbohydrate polymers called?
Polysaccharides
Give 3 examples of monosaccharides?
- Glucose
- Galactose
- Fructose
What is the structure of Glucose?
Hexosugar (hexose)
- contains 6 carbon atoms.
- contains hydrogen.
- contains oxygen.
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What are isomers?
The different structures of the same monomers.
What is the difference between the isomers of Glucose?
α - Hydroxyl group below.
β - Hydroxyl group above.
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How are monosaccharides joined together?
Condensation reactions
What happens during a condensation reaction (in sugars)?
- 2 monosaccharides (or polysaccharide chain ends) bond together to form a disaccharides (or longer polysaccharide chains).
- Water is released.
- made from one hydroxyl group and the other hydrogen.
- ∴ it is a condensation reaction. - A glycosidic bond is formed from the remaining oxygen.
Give 3 examples of disaccharides and what monomers make them up.
Glucose + α-Glucose ==> MALTOSE
Glucose + Fructose ==> SUCROSE
Glucose + Galactose ==> LACTOSE
Give 3 examples of polysaccharides and what monomers make them up.
Many x β-Glucose ==> CELLULOSE
Many x α-Glucose ==> GLYCOGEN
Many x α-Glucose ==> STARCH
How are polysaccharides broken apart?
Hydrolysis reactions
What happens during a hydrolysis reaction?
- Water is required for this to take place.
- Poly/Disaccharides break down into monomers/ smaller polymers.
- The bonds are broken. (Name the relevant bond)
What is the general formula for monosaccharides?
(CH₂O)n
- n = number of carbons.
What are the names and formulae of the different monosaccharides, given the number of carbons.
3 4 5 6 7
3 TRIOSE C₃H₆O₃
4 TETROSE C₄H₈O₄
5 PENTOSE C₅H₁₀O₅
6 HEXOSE C₆H₁₂O₆
7 HEPTOSE C₇H₁₄O₇
What are the formulae of Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose?
- They are all C₆H₁₂O₆.
- But they are still different from each other structurally.
- ∴they are structural isomers of each other.
Describe the test for reducing sugars.
- Benedict’s solution is added in excess.
- The solution is heated in a water bath.
- If the test is +tive you will get a colour change.
- The colour change follows the gradient:
Green (low) → Yellow → Orange → Red (High). - If the test is -tive the solution will remain Blue.
Is the Benedict’s test quantitative?
No. It’s Semi-Quantitative.
How does the Benedict’s test work?
- It works by causing the reducing sugar to give an electron to the solution (reduces the Benedict’s solution).
How would you get a quantitative reading from the Benedict’s test? Why does this work?
- Use a pH probe.
- ∵the sugar solution ionises (gains hydrogen) you can read the concentration of reducing sugars in a sample by reading the concentration of H.
What are Lipids made of and there proportion?
C, H, O
- has lower proportion of O to C and H (than carbohydrates)
Are lipids insolube?
Yes (in water).
However they are soluble in organic substances (e.g. alcohol, asetone)
What are the functions of lipids?
- Energy storing.
- Water-proofing.
- Insulating.
- Physical protection.
What two types of lipids can you get (and at what conditions)?
Fats (solid at room temp)
Oils (liquid at room temp)
[Room temp = 10-20 degrees C]
Describe the structure of Triglycerides.
A glycerol head bonded to three fatty acid tails through ester bonds.
What are saturated lipids?
- no double bonds
- usually fats
What are monounsaturated lipids?
- one double bond
- usually oils
What are polyunsaturated lipids?
- multiple double bonds
- usually oils
What is the general rule determine how (un)saturated a lipid is?
more unsaturated = more kinks
How does triglyceride’s specific structure determine their function?
- a high ration of energy-storing carbon-hydrogen bonds
- have a low mass to energy ratio
- are large and insoluble
- has a high ratio of hydrogen: oxygen and so releases water when oxidised
Describe the structure of Phospholipids.
- a phosphate head with two fatty acid tails.
- they are polar ( hydrophobic tail, hydrophilic head)
What is a Licence structure?
Single-layer spherical arrangement of phospholipids
What is a Liposome structure?
Double-layer spherical arrangement of phospholipids
What is a Bilayer structure
Double-layer flat arrangement of phospholipids
How does phospholipid’s specific structure determine their fuvtion?
- their polarity is useful in various cellular functions (in aqueous)
- the hydrophilic phosphate head helps hold at the surface of cell membranes
- combined with carbohydrates makes glycolipids within the cell-surface membrane (these are important in cell recognition).
What is the test for lipids? (name of the test)
The emulsion test.
How do we test for lipids? (describe steps)
- take a dry, grease-free test tube.
- add ethanol to the sample.
- shake thoroughly to dissolve any lipids.
- add water and shake gently.
- as a control, repeat the procedures using water instead of the sample (this should stay clear).
What will happen if the test for lipids is positive?
A cloudy emulsion will form.
Why does the test for lipids work?
- The cloudy emulsion id due to any lipid in the sample being finely dispersed in the water,
- Therefore when light passes through the emulsion it is refracted as it passes from oil droplets to water
- Making it appear cloudy.
What is the structure of an amino acid?
- A central Carbon
- An amino group (-NH₂)
- A carboxyl group (-COOH)
- A hydrogen atom (-H)
- R (side) group
How many naturally occurring amino acids are there?
20.
How do amino acids differ?
Through the R group being a variety of different chemical groups.
How a dipeptides made?
The removal on water in a condensation reaction.
The water is made by combining a hydroxyl (-OH) from the carboxyl group to one amino acid with a hydrogen (-H) from the amino group.
The two amino acids then link via a peptide bond.
How are peptide bonds connected?
Between the carbon atom of one amino acid and the nitrogen of the other.
How are peptide bonds broken?
Hydrolysis reaction.
What is the primary structure of proteins?
Amino acid monomers joining together in a process called polymerisation.
This gives many hundreds of amino acids called a polypeptide.
Why is there a limitless number of types of primary protein structure?
The 20 naturally occurring amino acids can join together in different sequences.
Why is the primary structure of proteins important?
A change in just a single amino acid in the primary structure can lead to a change in shape and therefore function.
What is the secondary structure of proteins?
Long polypeptide chains being twisted into a 3D shape, such as:
- a coil (α-helix).
- sheet (β-pleated sheet).