X-C Flight Planning - A: Navigation

Question 1

What are three common ways to navigate?

Answer 1

To navigate successfully, pilots must know their approximate position at all times or be able to determine it whenever they wish. Position may be determined by:

a. Pilotage (by reference to visible landmarks);
b. Dead reckoning (by computing direction and distance from a known position); or
c. Radio navigation (by use of radio aids).

Question 2

What type of aeronautical charts are available for use in VFR navigation?

Answer 2

a. Sectional Charts—designed for visual navigation of slow to medium speed aircraft. One inch equals 6.86 nautical miles. They are revised semiannually, except most Alaskan charts which are revised annually.
b. VFR Terminal Area Charts (TAC)—TACs depict the Class B airspace. While similar to sectional charts, TACs have more detail because the scale is larger. One inch equals 3.43 nautical miles. Charts are revised semiannually, except in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands where they are revised annually.
c. VFR Flyway Planning Charts—This chart is printed on the reverse side of selected TAC charts. The coverage is the same as the associated TAC. They depict flight paths and altitudes recommended for use to bypass high traffic areas.

Question 3

Are electronic flight bags (EFBs) approved for use as a replacement for paper reference material (POH and Supplements, charts, etc.) in the cockpit?

Answer 3

Yes. EFBs can be used during all phases of flight operations in lieu of paper reference material when the information displayed is the functional equivalent of the paper reference material replaced and is current, up-to- date, and valid. It is recommended that a secondary or back-up source of aeronautical information necessary for the flight be available.

Question 4

Be capable of locating the everything on a sectional chart

Answer 4

Everything

Question 5

What is an isogonic line?

Answer 5

Shown on most aeronautical charts as broken magenta lines, isogonic lines connect points of equal magnetic variation. They show the amount and direction of magnetic variation, which from time to time may vary.

Question 6

What is magnetic variation?

Answer 6

Variation is the angle between true north and magnetic north. It is expressed as east variation or west variation depending upon whether magnetic north (MN) is to the east or west of true north (TN), respectively.

Question 7

How do you convert a true direction to a magnetic direction?

Answer 7

To convert true course or heading to magnetic course or heading, note the variation shown by the nearest isogonic line. If variation is west, add; if east, subtract.

Question 8

What are lines of latitude and longitude?

Answer 8

Circles parallel to the equator (lines running east and west), parallels of latitude, enable us to measure distance in degrees latitude north or south of the equator. Meridians of longitude are drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole and are at right angles to the equator. The “Prime Meridian,” which passes through Greenwich, England, is used as the zero line from which measurements are made.

Question 9

What is magnetic deviation?

Answer 9

Because of magnetic influences within the airplane itself (electrical circuits, radios, lights, tools, engine, magnetized metal parts, etc.) the compass needle is frequently deflected from its normal reading. This deflection is called deviation. Deviation is different for each airplane, and also varies for different headings of the same airplane. The deviation value may be found on a deviation card located in the airplane.

Question 10

Name several types of navigational aids.

Answer 10

a. VOR (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range).
b. VORTAC (VHF Omnidirectional Range/Tactical Air Navigation).
c. DME (Distance Measuring Equipment).
d. RNAV (Area Navigation) includes INS, VOR/DME-referenced, and GPS.

Question 11

What is a VOR or VORTAC?

Answer 11

VORs are VHF radio stations that project radials in all directions (360°) from the station, like spokes from the hub of a wheel. Each of these radials is denoted by its outbound magnetic direction. Almost all VOR stations will also be VORTACs. A VORTAC (VOR-Tactical Air Navigation), provides the standard bearing information of a VOR plus distance information to pilots of airplanes which have distance measuring equipment (DME).

Question 12

Within what frequency range do VORs operate?

Answer 12

Transmitting frequencies of omnirange stations are in the VHF (very high frequency) band between 108 and 117.95 MHz, which are immediately below aviation communication frequencies.
(FAA-H-8083-25)

Question 13

What is a VOR radial?

Answer 13

A radial is defined as a line of magnetic bearing extending from an omnidirectional range (VOR).

Question 14

How are VOR NAVAIDs classified?

Answer 14

Terminal, Low, and High.

Question 15

What reception distances can be expected from the various class VORs?

Answer 15

~~~
Class Distance/Altitudes Miles
T (Terminal) <12,000’ 25NM
L (Low) Below 18,000’ 40NM
H (High) Below 18,000’ 40NM
H 14,500 – 17,999’ 100NM (CONUS only)
H 18,000 – FL450 130NM
H Above FL450 100NM
(FAA-H-8083-25)

Question 16

What limitations, if any, apply to VOR reception distances?

Answer 16

VORs are subject to line-of-sight restrictions, and the range varies proportionally to the altitude of the receiving equipment.

Question 17

What are the different methods for checking the accuracy of VOR receiver equipment?

Answer 17

(AIM 1-1-4, 14 CFR 91.171)

a. VOT check—plus or minus 4°
b. Ground checkpoint—plus or minus 4°
c. Airborne checkpoint—plus or minus 6°
d. Dual VOR check—4° between each other
e. Selected radial over a known ground point—plus or minus 6°

Question 18

Describe distance measuring equipment (DME)

Answer 18

VORTAC or TACAN facility

DME is used to measure, in nautical miles, the slant range distance of an aircraft from the DME navigational aid. Aircraft equipped with DME are also provided ground speed information.

(AIM 1-1-7)

Question 19

Give a brief explanation of Global Positioning System (GPS).

Answer 19

GPS is a satellite-based radio navigation system that broadcasts a signal used by receivers to determine a precise position anywhere in the world. The receiver tracks multiple satellites and determines a pseudo-range measurement that is then used to determine the user’s location.

Question 20

What are the three functional elements of GPS?

Answer 20

Space element—consists of 30 satellites.

Control element—consists of a network of ground-based GPS monitoring and control stations that ensure the accuracy of satellite positions and their clocks.

User element—consists of antennas and receiver-processors onboard aircraft that provide positioning, velocity, and precise timing to the user.

Question 21

What are the different types of GPS receivers available for use?

Answer 21

GPS receivers used for VFR navigation vary from fully integrated IFR/VFR installations used to support VFR operations, to handheld devices. Pilots must understand the limitations of the receivers prior to using in flight to avoid misusing navigation information.

Question 22

What is the purpose of RAIM?

Answer 22

Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) is a self-monitoring function performed by a GPS receiver to ensure that adequate GPS signals are being received from the satellites at all times. The GPS will alert the pilot whenever the integrity monitoring determines that the GPS signals do not meet the criteria for safe navigational use.

Question 23

Where can a pilot obtain RAIM availability information?

Answer 23

Pilots may obtain GPS RAIM availability information by using a manufacturer-supplied RAIM prediction tool, or using the Service Availability Prediction Tool (SAPT) on the FAA enroute and terminal RAIM prediction website. Pilots can also request GPS RAIM aeronautical information from an FSS during preflight briefings.

Question 24

If RAIM capability is lost in-flight, can you continue to use GPS for navigation?

Answer 24

Without RAIM capability, the pilot has no assurance of the accuracy of the GPS position. VFR GPS panel-mount receivers and handheld units have no RAIM alerting capability. This prevents the pilot from being alerted to the loss of the required number of satellites in view, or the detection of a position error.

Question 25

Before conducting a flight using GPS equipment for navigation, what basic preflight checks should be made?

Answer 25

a. Verify that the GPS equipment is properly installed and certified for the planned operation.
b. Verify that the databases (navigation, terrain, obstacle, etc.) have not expired.
c. Review GPS NOTAM/RAIM information related to the planned route of flight.
d. Review operational status of ground-based NAVAIDs and related aircraft equipment (e.g., 30-day VOR check) appropriate to route of flight.
e. Determine that the GPS receiver operation manual or airplane flight manual supplement is onboard and available for use.

Question 26

How can a pilot determine what type of operation a GPS receiver is approved for?

Answer 26

The pilot should reference the POH/AFM and supplements to determine the limitations and operating procedures for the particular GPS equipment installed. Most systems require that the avionics operations manual/handbook be on board as a limitation of use.

Question 27

During a preflight briefing, will the FSS briefer automatically provide a pilot with GPS NOTAMS?

Answer 27

No. You must specifically request GPS/WAAS NOTAMs.

Question 28

How many satellites does a GPS receiver require to compute its position?

Answer 28

3 satellites—yields a latitude and longitude position only (2D)
4 satellites—yields latitude, longitude, and altitude position (3D)
5 satellites—3D and RAIM
6 satellites—3D and RAIM (isolates corrupt signal and removes from navigation solution)

Question 29

What is WAAS?

Answer 29

The wide area augmentation system (WAAS) is a ground and satellite integrated navigational error correction system that provides accuracy enhancements to signals received from the global positioning system. WAAS provides extremely accurate lateral and vertical navigation signals to aircraft equipped with GPS/WAAS-enabled certified (TSO C- 146) equipment.

Question 30

What limitations should you be aware of when using a

panel-mount VFR GPS or a hand-held VFR GPS system for navigation?

Answer 30

• RAIM capability—Many VFR GPS receivers and all hand-held units have no RAIM alerting capability. Loss of the required number of satellites in view, or the detection of a position error, cannot be displayed to the pilot by such receivers.
• Database currency—In many receivers, an updatable database is used for navigation fixes, airports, and instrument procedures. These databases must be maintained to the current update for IFR operation, but no such requirement exists for VFR use.
• Antenna location—In many VFR installations of GPS receivers, antenna location is more a matter of convenience than performance. Handheld GPS receiver antenna location is limited to the cockpit or cabin only and is rarely optimized to provide a clear view of available satellites. Loss of signal, coupled with a lack of RAIM capability, could present erroneous position and navigation information with no warning to the pilot.

Question 31

Define the term VFR waypoint.

Answer 31

VFR waypoints provide pilots with a supplementary tool to assist with position awareness while navigating visually in aircraft equipped with area navigation receivers (such as GPS). They provide navigational aids for pilots unfamiliar with an area, waypoint definition of existing reporting points, enhanced navigation in and around Class B and Class C airspace, and around special use airspace. VFR waypoint names consist of a five-letter identifier beginning with “VP” and are retrievable from navigation databases; they should be used only when operating under VFR conditions.