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A&P > Winter Test 1 (Ch. 4, 16,11,12) > Flashcards

Winter Test 1 (Ch. 4, 16,11,12) Flashcards

1
Q

Purines

A

double ring
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)

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2
Q

Pyrimidines

A

single ring
Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T)

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3
Q

DNA structure breakdown

A

DNA –> histones –> nucleosomes –> chromatid –> chromosome

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4
Q

process of DNA synthesis

A

DNA –> mRNA –> protein

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5
Q

transcription

A

step from DNA to mRNA

occurs in the nucleus where DNA is located

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6
Q

translation

A

step from mRNA to protein

most occurs in cytoplasm

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7
Q

Peptide formation

A

1) DNA double helix
2) 7 base triplets on template strand of DNA
3) mRNA transcribed
4) Anticodons of tRNA bind to mRNA codons
5) Amino acids carried by 6 tRNA molecules
6) Amino acids linked into a peptide chain

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8
Q

Cell cycle

A

G1 phase- get materials needed to replicate DNA
S phase- DNA replication
G2 phase- synthesize enzymes for cell division and repairs DNA replication errors
M phase- mitosis
G1, S, G2 are called interphase

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9
Q

Cells stop dividing when

A

snugly contact neighboring cells
when nutrients or growth factors are withdrawn
contact inhibition – no more space

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10
Q

Cells divide when

A

they have enough cytoplasm for two daughter cells
they have replicated their DNA
adequate supply of nutrients
are stimulated by growth factors

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11
Q

Polygenetic inheritance

A

genes at two or more loci, or even different chromosomes, contribute to a single phenotypic trait (skin and eye color, alcoholism, mental illness, cancer, and heart disease)

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12
Q

Pleitropy

A

one gene produces multiple phenotypic effects

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13
Q

Penetrance

A

% of population inhibiting expected phenotype

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14
Q

Modality of Receptors

A 
Thermoreceptors- heat and cold
Photoreceptors- eyes/light
Nociceptors- pain
Chemoreceptors- chemicals: odor, fluids, tastes
Mechanoreceptors- vibrations, pressure
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15
Q

Duration of receptors

A

phasic- burst of action potentials, quickly adapt and sharply reduce or stop
tonic- adapt slowly, generate nerve signals more steadily

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16
Q

Intensity of receptors

A

3 ways:
which fibers are sending signals
how many fibers are doing so
how fast these fibers are firing

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17
Q

Origin of stimuli of receptors

A

exteroceptors- external stimuli
interoceptors- internal stimuli
proprioceptors- body position

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18
Q

Distribution of receptors

A

general (somesthetic) senses- widely distributed

special senses- vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste, and smell

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19
Q

Uncapsulated nerve endings

A

lack connective tissue wrapping (free nerve endings)
Tactile (Merkel) discs- tonic receptors for light touch
Hair receptors

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20
Q

Encapsulated nerve endings

A

wrapped by glial cells or connective tissue

enhances sensitivity/selectivity of response

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21
Q

Project pathways of sensory neurons

A

3 nerve orders:
1st- afferent, body to spinal cord
2nd- spinal cord to thalamus
3rd- thalamus to cerebrum

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22
Q

Papillae of the tongue

A

filliform- no taste buds (for texture)
fungiform- tips and sides of tongue
vallate (circumvallate)- 50% of taste buds

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23
Q

2 mechanisms of taste

A

Salty (Na+) and Sour (acidic)- depolarizes and change membrane potential
Umami (amino acids), Bitter (alkaloids), Sweet- 2nd messenger system

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24
Q

Outer ear

A

auricle
auditory canal- temporal bone to tympanic membrane
external acoustic meatus

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25
Q

Middle ear

A

tympanic membrane- eardrum

auditory ossicles- malleus, incus, stapes

26
Q

Inner ear

A

bony labyrinth
membranous labyrinth- endolymph and perilymph
cochlea

27
Q

Cochlea

A

scala vestibuli- superior chamber, oval window –> apex
scala tympani- inferior chamber, apex –> round window
scala media- triangular middle chamber, endolymph

28
Q

Equilibrium

A

static- orientation of the head when the body is stationary

dynamic- perception of motion pr acceleration

29
Q

Vestibule

A

Saccule and utricle:
macula sacculi- vertical on wall of saccule
macula utricully- horizontally of floor of utricle

30
Q

conjunctiva

A

a transparent mucous membrane that lines eyelids and covers anterior surface of eyeball, except cornea

31
Q

Tunics of the eyeball

A

tunica fibrosa- outer fibrous layer (sclera and cornea)
tunica vasculosa- middle vascular layer (choroid, ciliary body, iris)
tunica interna- retina

32
Q

Characteristics of muscle

A 
responsiveness (excitability)
conductivity
contractility
extensibility
elasticity
33
Q

Connective tissues of muscles

A

endomysium- around the muscle cells
perimysium- around the muscle fascicles
epimysium- around the entire muscle

34
Q

sarcomeres

A

functional contractile unit of the muscle fiber
muscle shortens because individual sarcomeres shorten
pulls z discs closer to each other

35
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

in muscle cells about -90mV

maintained by Na-K pump

36
Q

Active muscle fiber/nerve cell

A

ion gates open in the plasma membrane
Na+ instantly diffuses down its concentration gradient into the cell
depolarization - inside of the plasma membrane becomes briefly positive
immediately, Na+ gates close and K+ gates open
K+ rushes out of cell
loss of positive potassium ions turns the membrane negative again (repolarization)

37
Q

excitation-contraction coupling

A

preparing a muscle to contract

38
Q

Excitation of muscles

A 
nerve signal opens voltage-gated calcium channels in synaptic knob 
calcium stimulates exocytosis of ACh from synaptic vesicles
ACh released into synaptic cleft
two ACh molecules bind to each receptor protein, opening Na+ and K+ channels. 
voltage change (EPP) in end-plate region opens nearby voltage-gated channels producing an action potential that spreads over muscle surface.
39
Q

Contraction of muscles

A

need ATP
Bent actin bound to ATP
Power stroke- sliding of thin filament (actin)

40
Q

Relaxation of muscles

A

nerve stimulation & ACh release stop
AChE breaks down ACh & fragments reabsorbed into synaptic knob
stimulation by ACh stops

41
Q

Isometric muscle contraction

A

same length of muscle, changes in load of weight

42
Q

Isotonic muscle contraction

A

changes in length of muscle, same load of weight

43
Q

Anaerobic fermentation

A

enables cells to produce ATP in the absence of oxygen

yields little ATP and toxic lactic acid, a major factor in muscle fatigue

44
Q

aerobic respiration

A

produces far more ATP
less toxic end products (CO2 and water)
requires a continual supply of oxygen

45
Q

phosphagen system

A

provides nearly all energy used for short bursts of intense activity

46
Q

slow oxidative (SO), slow-twitch, red, or type I fibers

A

abundant mitochondria, myoglobin and capillaries - deep red color
adapted for aerobic respiration and fatigue resistance

47
Q

fast glycolytic (FG), fast-twitch, white, or type II fibers

A

fibers are well adapted for quick responses, but not for fatigue resistance
rich in enzymes of phosphagen and glycogen-lactic acid systems generate lactic acid causing fatigue
poor in mitochondria, myoglobin, and blood capillaries which gives pale appearance

48
Q

Central nervous system (CNS)

A

brain and spinal cord enclosed in bony coverings

49
Q

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A

all the nervous system except the brain and spinal cord

composed of nerves and ganglia

50
Q

sensory (afferent) division

A

carries sensory signals from various receptors to the CNS

51
Q

somatic sensory division

A

carries signals from receptors in the skin, muscles, bones, and joints

52
Q

visceral sensory division

A

carries signals from the viscera of the thoracic and abdominal cavities
heart, lungs, stomach, and urinary bladder

53
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

tends to arouse body for action

accelerating heart beat and respiration, while inhibiting digestive and urinary systems

54
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

tends to have calming effect
slows heart rate and breathing
stimulates digestive and urinary systems

55
Q

interneurons (association) neurons

A

CNS; process, store, and retrieve information and ‘make decisions’ that determine how the body will respond to stimuli

56
Q

motor (efferent) neuron

A

motor because most of them lead to muscles

efferent neurons conduct signals away from the CNS

57
Q

multipolar neuron

A

one axon and multiple dendrites
most common
most neurons in the brain and spinal cord

58
Q

bipolar neuron

A

one axon and one dendrite

olfactory cells, retina, inner ear

59
Q

unipolar neuron

A

single process leading away from the soma

sensory from skin and organs to spinal cord

60
Q

anaxonic neuron

A

many dendrites but no axon

help in visual processes

A&P (5 decks)

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