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A&P > Winter Test 1 (Ch. 4, 16,11,12) > Flashcards

Winter Test 1 (Ch. 4, 16,11,12) Flashcards

(60 cards)

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1
Q

Purines

A

double ring
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)

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2
Q

Pyrimidines

A

single ring
Cytosine (C)
Thymine (T)

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3
Q

DNA structure breakdown

A

DNA –> histones –> nucleosomes –> chromatid –> chromosome

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4
Q

process of DNA synthesis

A

DNA –> mRNA –> protein

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5
Q

transcription

A

step from DNA to mRNA

occurs in the nucleus where DNA is located

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6
Q

translation

A

step from mRNA to protein

most occurs in cytoplasm

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7
Q

Peptide formation

A

1) DNA double helix
2) 7 base triplets on template strand of DNA
3) mRNA transcribed
4) Anticodons of tRNA bind to mRNA codons
5) Amino acids carried by 6 tRNA molecules
6) Amino acids linked into a peptide chain

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8
Q

Cell cycle

A

G1 phase- get materials needed to replicate DNA
S phase- DNA replication
G2 phase- synthesize enzymes for cell division and repairs DNA replication errors
M phase- mitosis
G1, S, G2 are called interphase

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9
Q

Cells stop dividing when

A

snugly contact neighboring cells
when nutrients or growth factors are withdrawn
contact inhibition – no more space

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10
Q

Cells divide when

A

they have enough cytoplasm for two daughter cells
they have replicated their DNA
adequate supply of nutrients
are stimulated by growth factors

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11
Q

Polygenetic inheritance

A

genes at two or more loci, or even different chromosomes, contribute to a single phenotypic trait (skin and eye color, alcoholism, mental illness, cancer, and heart disease)

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12
Q

Pleitropy

A

one gene produces multiple phenotypic effects

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13
Q

Penetrance

A

% of population inhibiting expected phenotype

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14
Q

Modality of Receptors

A 
Thermoreceptors- heat and cold
Photoreceptors- eyes/light
Nociceptors- pain
Chemoreceptors- chemicals: odor, fluids, tastes
Mechanoreceptors- vibrations, pressure
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15
Q

Duration of receptors

A

phasic- burst of action potentials, quickly adapt and sharply reduce or stop
tonic- adapt slowly, generate nerve signals more steadily

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16
Q

Intensity of receptors

A

3 ways:
which fibers are sending signals
how many fibers are doing so
how fast these fibers are firing

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17
Q

Origin of stimuli of receptors

A

exteroceptors- external stimuli
interoceptors- internal stimuli
proprioceptors- body position

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18
Q

Distribution of receptors

A

general (somesthetic) senses- widely distributed

special senses- vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste, and smell

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19
Q

Uncapsulated nerve endings

A

lack connective tissue wrapping (free nerve endings)
Tactile (Merkel) discs- tonic receptors for light touch
Hair receptors

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20
Q

Encapsulated nerve endings

A

wrapped by glial cells or connective tissue

enhances sensitivity/selectivity of response

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21
Q

Project pathways of sensory neurons

A

3 nerve orders:
1st- afferent, body to spinal cord
2nd- spinal cord to thalamus
3rd- thalamus to cerebrum

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22
Q

Papillae of the tongue

A

filliform- no taste buds (for texture)
fungiform- tips and sides of tongue
vallate (circumvallate)- 50% of taste buds

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23
Q

2 mechanisms of taste

A

Salty (Na+) and Sour (acidic)- depolarizes and change membrane potential
Umami (amino acids), Bitter (alkaloids), Sweet- 2nd messenger system

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24
Q

Outer ear

A

auricle
auditory canal- temporal bone to tympanic membrane
external acoustic meatus

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25
Middle ear
tympanic membrane- eardrum | auditory ossicles- malleus, incus, stapes
26
Inner ear
bony labyrinth membranous labyrinth- endolymph and perilymph cochlea
27
Cochlea
scala vestibuli- superior chamber, oval window --> apex scala tympani- inferior chamber, apex --> round window scala media- triangular middle chamber, endolymph
28
Equilibrium
static- orientation of the head when the body is stationary | dynamic- perception of motion pr acceleration
29
Vestibule
Saccule and utricle: macula sacculi- vertical on wall of saccule macula utricully- horizontally of floor of utricle
30
conjunctiva
a transparent mucous membrane that lines eyelids and covers anterior surface of eyeball, except cornea
31
Tunics of the eyeball
tunica fibrosa- outer fibrous layer (sclera and cornea) tunica vasculosa- middle vascular layer (choroid, ciliary body, iris) tunica interna- retina
32
Characteristics of muscle
``` responsiveness (excitability) conductivity contractility extensibility elasticity ```
33
Connective tissues of muscles
endomysium- around the muscle cells perimysium- around the muscle fascicles epimysium- around the entire muscle
34
sarcomeres
functional contractile unit of the muscle fiber muscle shortens because individual sarcomeres shorten pulls z discs closer to each other
35
Resting membrane potential
in muscle cells about -90mV | maintained by Na-K pump
36
Active muscle fiber/nerve cell
ion gates open in the plasma membrane Na+ instantly diffuses down its concentration gradient into the cell depolarization - inside of the plasma membrane becomes briefly positive immediately, Na+ gates close and K+ gates open K+ rushes out of cell loss of positive potassium ions turns the membrane negative again (repolarization)
37
excitation-contraction coupling
preparing a muscle to contract
38
Excitation of muscles
``` nerve signal opens voltage-gated calcium channels in synaptic knob calcium stimulates exocytosis of ACh from synaptic vesicles ACh released into synaptic cleft two ACh molecules bind to each receptor protein, opening Na+ and K+ channels. voltage change (EPP) in end-plate region opens nearby voltage-gated channels producing an action potential that spreads over muscle surface. ```
39
Contraction of muscles
need ATP Bent actin bound to ATP Power stroke- sliding of thin filament (actin)
40
Relaxation of muscles
nerve stimulation & ACh release stop AChE breaks down ACh & fragments reabsorbed into synaptic knob stimulation by ACh stops
41
Isometric muscle contraction
same length of muscle, changes in load of weight
42
Isotonic muscle contraction
changes in length of muscle, same load of weight
43
Anaerobic fermentation
enables cells to produce ATP in the absence of oxygen | yields little ATP and toxic lactic acid, a major factor in muscle fatigue
44
aerobic respiration
produces far more ATP less toxic end products (CO2 and water) requires a continual supply of oxygen
45
phosphagen system
provides nearly all energy used for short bursts of intense activity
46
slow oxidative (SO), slow-twitch, red, or type I fibers
abundant mitochondria, myoglobin and capillaries - deep red color adapted for aerobic respiration and fatigue resistance
47
fast glycolytic (FG), fast-twitch, white, or type II fibers
fibers are well adapted for quick responses, but not for fatigue resistance rich in enzymes of phosphagen and glycogen-lactic acid systems generate lactic acid causing fatigue poor in mitochondria, myoglobin, and blood capillaries which gives pale appearance
48
Central nervous system (CNS)
brain and spinal cord enclosed in bony coverings
49
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
all the nervous system except the brain and spinal cord | composed of nerves and ganglia
50
sensory (afferent) division
carries sensory signals from various receptors to the CNS
51
somatic sensory division
carries signals from receptors in the skin, muscles, bones, and joints
52
visceral sensory division
carries signals from the viscera of the thoracic and abdominal cavities heart, lungs, stomach, and urinary bladder
53
sympathetic nervous system
tends to arouse body for action | accelerating heart beat and respiration, while inhibiting digestive and urinary systems
54
parasympathetic nervous system
tends to have calming effect slows heart rate and breathing stimulates digestive and urinary systems
55
interneurons (association) neurons
CNS; process, store, and retrieve information and ‘make decisions’ that determine how the body will respond to stimuli
56
motor (efferent) neuron
motor because most of them lead to muscles | efferent neurons conduct signals away from the CNS
57
multipolar neuron
one axon and multiple dendrites most common most neurons in the brain and spinal cord
58
bipolar neuron
one axon and one dendrite | olfactory cells, retina, inner ear
59
unipolar neuron
single process leading away from the soma | sensory from skin and organs to spinal cord
60
anaxonic neuron
many dendrites but no axon | help in visual processes

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