Whole content (not researchers names and studies)

Question 1

What is Introspection?

Answer 1

The first systematic attempt to study human behaviour, which involved breaking down the consciousness into thought, feelings and sensations to gain knowledge about the mental state

Question 2

How did psychology emerge as a science?

Answer 2

Behaviourists (like Watson) questioned the scientific status of introspection as they didn’t like how it produced subjective data, meaning it couldn’t be used to develop general principles. With Watson and Skinner bringing the methods of the natural sciences to psychology.

Question 3

What are the 3 evaluation points for the origins of psychology?

Answer 3

• Wundt’s methods were unreliable
• Support for the scientific approach
• Weakness of scientific approach

Question 4

Evaluation point

Why are Wundts methods unreliable?

Answer 4

• The approach relied heavily on non observable responses
• The data produced was subjective so difficult to establish general rules
• Lack of reliability of his methods

Question 5

What is the Behaviourist approach?

Answer 5

Phenomena that could be observed and measured, producing reliable reproducible results

Question 6

Evaluation point

What is the support for the scientific approach?

Answer 6

• Can be used to objectively test assumptions about behaviour
• self corrective as they can be refined or abandoned
• Knowledge required through the scientific method is more than just the passive acceptance of theories

Question 7

Evaluation point

What is a weakness of the scientific approach?

Answer 7

• It isn’t always appropriate
• not all psychologists share the same view that all human behaviour can or should be explored scientifically
• Predictions can be impossible and methods inappropriate if behaviour isn’t subject to regularities

Question 8

What are the key assumptions of the behaviourist approach?

Answer 8

• Psychologists should only study observable, quantifiable behaviour
• All behaviour is learned
• Humans are no different to animals and shouldn’t be regarded as more complex
• Animal behaviour research links to humans

Question 9

What is classical conditioning and who studied it?

Answer 9

Learning through association, Pavlov

Question 10

What is operant conditioning and who studied it?

Answer 10

Learning through reinforcement, Skinner

Question 11

What are the 3 types of reinforcement that affect behaviour?

Answer 11

• Positive (behaviour followed by a reward)
• Negative (behaviour followed by the removal of an adverse consequence)
• Punishment (behaviour followed by unpleasant consequence)

Question 12

What are the 3 evaluation points of the learning approach- behaviourism?

Answer 12

• Contribution to psychology as a science
• Real world application
• Using animal studies

Question 13

Evaluation point

What contribution to psychology as a science does behaviourism have?

Answer 13

Experimental methods used by Pavlov and Skinner rejected the earlier emphasis on introspection and encouraged research that focused on more objective dimensions. The emphasis on scientific methods has led to an increasingly valid and reliable understanding of human behaviour. They have also helped psychology gain credibility and status as a scientific discipline.

Question 14

What did Wundt’s approach become known as and why?

Answer 14

Structuralism because he used scientific methods to study the human conscious

Question 15

Evaluation point

What real world application does behaviourism have?

Answer 15

• It has made important contributions to our modern understanding of mental illnesses
• eg many phobias are thought to be a result of an earlier unpleasant learning experience, as well as helping to understand addictions such as gambling

Question 16

Evaluation

What do animal studies show about behaviourism?

Answer 16

• they were influential in encouraging the use of animals as research subjects
• they believed that the learning processes of animals and humans were very similar
• using non-humans in research gives experimenters more control over the process
• BUT many say its unethical or not generalisable to humans

Question 17

What are the basic assumptions of social learning theory (SLT)?

Answer 17

SLT rests on the idea of observational learning theory, that learning occurs through the observation and imitation of behaviour performed by role models. It recognises the importance of cognitive processes and rejects the notion that learning is purely the outcome of a stimulus-response loop

Question 18

What do social learning theorists mean by mediational processes in learning?

Answer 18

• SLT is designed by 4 distinct mediational or mental processes, these are; Attention, retention, reproduction and motivation
• If these factors are implemented imitation can take place, being more likely if the observed behaviour is rewarded
• This is what Bandura called vicarious reinforcement

Question 19

What is vicarious reinforcement?

Answer 19

• Operant conditioning relies on direct reinforcement/punishment
• For SLT behaviour is learned through observation and imitation only if rewarded

Question 20

What are the 4 distinct mediational processes?

Answer 20

1) Attention- was behaviour noticed
2) Retention-behaviour remembered
3) Reproduction- observer able to reproduce
4) Motivation-will to carry out observed behaviour

Question 21

What do social learning theorists mean by identification?

Answer 21

• For there to be learning someone must model a behaviour
• If the observer sees the person as a role model they will identify with them and behaviour will most likely to be imitated
• It involves associating with the qualities, characteristics and views of role models and are usually similar in age and gender

Question 22

Evaluation

What is research support for the social learning theory?

Answer 22

-Lots of research
-Fox and Bailenson found that humans were more likely to imitate computer-generated ‘virtual humans’ who were similar to themselves
-Also, Rushton and Campbell found that same sex modelling increased the number of female observers who agreed to and did donate blood
These studies show support for aspects of SLT

Question 23

Evaluation

What are methodological problems for SLT?

Answer 23

• Bandura made extensive use of the experimental lab method, which is artificial
• possibly causing demand characteristics
• therefore the ppts may have acted in an aggressive way towards the Bobo doll because they thought that was expected of them

Question 24

Evaluation

what are the real world applications of SLT?

Answer 24

• Strength
• long been a feature in explanations of criminal behaviour and recent research has continued this focus
• examined and evaluate the effectiveness of advertising
• therefore it can provide a positive impact on promotional health campaigns and indirectly help combat problem behaviour like alchololism

Question 25

What does the cognitive approach study?

Answer 25

Focuses on the examination of internal mental processes such as perception, memory, attention and consciousness

Question 26

What is meant by internal mental processes?

Answer 26

• Internal mental processes are the operations that occur during thinking eg how we turn the info from our eyes into a usable form
• Cognitive psychologists appreciate that these concepts can’t be directly observed and use inferences as a means of understanding human experience from observable behaviours

Question 27

What is meant by inference in relation to the cognitive approach. Refer to theoretical and computer models

Answer 27

• An inference is an educated guess
• Their operation must be inferred from the observable and measurable visual human behaviour
• To assist, cognitive psychologists make use of theoretical models and computer models
• Theoretical models enable the visual representation of complex conceptual processes and computer models provide a basis for research within the field
• Theoretical models are typically diagrams or flowcharts eg the multi store model of memory

Question 28

Outline the role of Schema’s in cognitive psychology?

Answer 28

• Schema’s= info processing model that emphasises how perception and memory are shaped by cognitive frameworks- we use it to organise past experiences and interpret and respond to new situations
• As we age our schemas become increasingly sophisticated
• They provide us with expectations about what will happen in the world, rather than requiring us to process every single detail, all of the time
• They enable us to act comfortably even when our information is incomplete which makes it much easier to deal with complex situations
• However, schemas can lead to errors in information-processing such as prejudice

Question 29

Describe the emergence of cognitive neuroscience

Answer 29

• Relatively new field that tries to bridge the gap between the cognitive and biological approaches
• It has resulted in the development of techniques for scanning the living brain
• It uses non-invasive brain scanning techniques like MRIs to understand which parts of the brain are active while specific internal mental processes are being used
• Eg brain scans have highlighted the distinction between different types of LTM
• Brain imaging techniques have also been successful in establishing a link to certain mental health disorders such as association of OCD with the parahippocampal gyrus

Question 30

Evaluation of the cognitive approach

What real world application does the cognitive approach supply?

Answer 30

• A strength is that it has many real world applications
• Eg. Cognitive research into memory and the effects of misleading information has reduced the use of EWT in court cases and led to major police reforms
• Additionally, a better understanding of thinking patterns has helped professionals understand and treat mental illnesses such as depression through therapies like CBT
• This indicates that cognitive research has made concrete contributions to contemporary society

Question 31

Evaluation of the cognitive approach

How has the cognitive approach provided support for brain scans?

Answer 31

• Recent advances in neuroimaging technology such as fMRI have lent weight to theoretical models by providing empirical confirmation of brain activity
• However, the precise meaning of this activity is still a matter for debate
• Some claim that the techniques provide the cognitive approach with a strong scientific grounding, yet others say it’s only correlational and doesn’t constitute true scientific validation
• The availability of such techniques and their increasing sophistication is one clear strength

Question 32

Evaluation of the cognitive approach

How does it suffer with machine reductionism?

Answer 32

• A problem is that it suffers from machine reductionism
• Although their are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a computer, the analogy has been critisied
• Such analogies ignore the influence of human emotion and motivation
• For instance, research into the human memory may be affected by emotional factors such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses (Johnson and Scott)
• This suggests that the cognitive approach is failing to appreciate a key aspect of human nature

Question 33

Evaluation of the cognitive approach

What is the support for social releasers?

Answer 33

• Clear evidence to show that cute infant behaviours are intended to initiate social interactions
• Brazleton et al observed mothers and babies interactions, reporting the existence of interactional synchrony
• Extended study from observation to experiment
• Primary attachment figures were instructed to ignore their babies, whilst they initally showed distress through repeated ignoring some babies curled up and lied motionless
• As they responded so strongly it supports Bowlby

Question 34

Briefly outline the assumptions of the biological approach

Answer 34

• The biological approach assumes that all human behaviour has a biological origin
• This approach insists that to comprehend human behaviour fully, it is necessary to understand internal biological structures and processes, such as; genes, evolution, nervous system and neurochemistry

Question 35

Outline the findings of some Twin Studies conducted by biological psychologists

Answer 35

• Research suggests that behavioural or psychological characteristics can be inherited
• Research in this area compares concordance rates (CR) of mono zygotic (MZ- identical) and dizygotic (DZ-non identical)
• eg MZ twins have an increased CR of developing schizophrenia if the other has it
• McGuffin-46% likely to get depression if other identical twin has it
• Suggests that there must be a genetic component to certain illnesses

Question 36

What is meant by genotype?

Answer 36

-Genetic makeup
-Fixed from birth
eg the brown eye gene

Question 37

What is meant by phenotype?

Answer 37

-expression of their genes
-observable characteristics of a person
eg brown eyes
-influences by both genetic inheritance and interaction with environment

Question 38

Explain what is meant by evolution and behaviour. Illustrate your answer with one human or non-human example of evolution and behaviour

Answer 38

• Evolution and behaviour refers to Dawins theory of natural selection
• This means that any genetically determined behaviour that enhances a species likelihood of survival will be passed onto future generations
• This could then lead to less amimals getting caught by predators and consequently more of the animals with the novel colour will get the opportunity to pass on their genes
• Buss’s survey of heterosexual mate selection is an example
• This suggests that certain behaviours and traits have evolved in both males and females since they promote better prospects for passing on favourable genes

Question 39

Describe the influence of neurochemisrty on behaviour. Refer to research in your answer.

Answer 39

-At the synapse, signals are sent between neurones by chemicals called neurotransmitters
-Imbalance in the neurotransmitters are associated with atypical behaviour
-EG, too little serotonin is associated with depression+ aggression
and too much dopamine is associated with schizophrenia
-Research helps us understand the role of neurotransmitters

Question 40

Evaluation of the biological approach

Weakness; correlation v causation

Answer 40

• causation is often strongly implied in explanations that focus on brain structures
• eg schizophrenia suggests that a lack of activity in the ventral striatum is linked to negative symptoms such as avoliation
• It tells us that there is only an association between brain structure and behaviour
• Therefore it is critically important to remember that biological explanations are often based on correlational results, meaning that one event causes the other

Question 41

Evaluation of the biological approach

weakness; biological determinism

Answer 41

• biological explanations of human behaviour maybe considered deterministic
• eg, some behaviours are the result of evolution and maximise are chances of survival and reproduction
• Such claims are used to explain a variety of gender differences including aggression and stress
• However, they imply that humans have little control over their behaviour and suggest we are predetermined to act in a certain way regardless of experience
• This is problematic of those that don’t follow typical behaviours

Question 42

Evaluation of the biological approach

strength-real world applications

Answer 42

• Drug therapies have been developed for many mental illnesses based on research into neurotransmitters
• eg, antidepressants work to increase serotonin
• understanding abnormal neurochemical activity in the brain had not only been helpful for developing treatments but has also provided patients with an explanation that their illness is not their fault

Question 43

Outline the role of the unconscious in the Psychodynamic Approach

Answer 43

• Freud
• There are vast parts of the mind that are inaccessible to conscious awareness
• The metaphor of an iceberg was used
• The unconscious takes up a larger part of the mind even though we aren’t directly aware of it
• Any traumatic events from childhood are repressed into the unconscious
• The unconscious mind can reveal itself in several ways including dreams

Question 44

Outline the structure of personality according to the psychodynamic approach

Answer 44

• 3 separate components;
• ID= primal urges, pleasure principles, ‘Wants thing instantly’, occurs from birth
• EGO= ability to reason, can’t always get what you want, tames the Id and balances the superego’s demands, arises in response to control by others, reality principle, occurs from 2 years
• SUPEREGO= development of morality in response to parental discipline, produces feelings of guilt, morality principle and occurs from 5 years

Question 45

Describe what is meant by defence mechanisms in the psychodynamic approach

Answer 45

• Defence mechanisms are used by the ego in order to cope with the conflicting demands of the ID and superego
• The ego works by distorting reality so that the individual can continue with their everyday life without unpleasant feelings
• Types of defence mechanisms;
• Repression= forgets traumatic experiences
• Denial= believes that something hasn’t happened that has
• Displacement= takes anger out on others

Question 46

Describe what is meant by Psychosexual stages of development

Answer 46

• According to Freud, children pass through several psychosexual stages of development; oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital
• During each stage the child has its desire for bodily pleasure denied and redirected by its parents until they focus exclusively on the appropriate sexual outlet at any given stage
• According to Freud, if a child fails to resolve the conflict at each of the psychosexual stages of development, they may develop a fixation
• The driver of this process is the Oedipus complex in which boys relinquish their unconscious desire for their mother and internalise their fear of castration by their father
• this process is traumatic and cannot be confronted directly and so the ego establishes defence mechanisms such as denial to mediate the psychological terrors

Question 47

What happens in the oral stage?

Answer 47

• age 0-2
• focus on mouth
• the infant experiences pleasure through their mouth, particularly sucking and biting
• they could develop oral fixation here where a person might smoke or bite nails

Question 48

What happens in the anal stage?

Answer 48

• age 2-3
• focus on anus
• the child becomes aware of the reality principle imposed by their parents and must undergo potty training in order to control their bowel movements
• the ego develops
• anal fixation can occur, manifesting in 2 ways;
  1) anal retentive= person might become an obsessive perfectionist
  2) anal explusive= person might be messy and thoughtless

Question 49

What happens in the phallic stage?

Answer 49

• age 3-6
• focus on genitals
• the major feature of this stage is the Oedipus complex in which infant boys must overcome their unconscious sexual desire for their mother by identifying with their father by engaging in boyish behaviour
• for girls= the electra complex where girls experiance penis envy and believe their mothers cut of their penis when they were younger, they then start playing with dolls which is the next best thing and become feminine
• the superego develops here
• a phallic fixation or phallic personal might manifest inreckless and narcissitic behaviours

Question 50

What happens in the latent stage?

Answer 50

• age 6-puberty
• the focus is hidden
• the sexual energy which has driven the previous stages now becomes latent, so the individual can focus on the world and form friendships

Question 51

What happens in the genital stage?

Answer 51

• age puberty +
• focus is forming heterosexual relationships
• the final stage culminates with the psychosexual energy taking residence in the genitals, to be directed towards the formation of adult relationships
• A person who becomes fixated at the genital stage might struggle to form heterosexual relationships

Question 52

Evaluation of the Psychodynamic Approach

Strength- Very influential

Answer 52

• It’s hugely influenced modern psychology
• alongside behaviourism the psychodynamic approach remained the dominant force in psychology for the 1st half of the 20th century and has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena
• These include personality development, moral development and gender
• The approach is also influential in drawing attention to the connection between experiences in childhood and later development
• Although Freud’s theory is controversial is has nevertheless had a huge impact on psychology

Question 53

Evaluation of the Psychodynamic Approach

Research Support for Psychoanalysis

Answer 53

• Empirical research
• Biskup et al reported a naturalistic study of 36 patients that demonstrated that at the end of psychoanalytic therapy, 77% of the patients showed clinically significant improvements
• Also, Bachrach et al conducted a meta-analysis of every major study of the effectiveness of psychoanalytic treatment and found that all studies show that psychoanalysis is an effective treatment for many patients
• This suggests that despite a lack of empirical support for psychodynamic theories, psychodynamic treatments are effective at treating a range of psychological disorders

Question 54

Evaluation of the Psychodynamic Approach

Untestable concepts

Answer 54

• Many of its core concepts are very abstract and untestable
• Karl Popper argued that Freud’s approach didn’t meet the scientific criterion of falsification and that it’s not open to empirical testing and the possibility to be disproved
• Many of Freud’s concepts are said to be at an unconscious level making them impossible to test
• This affords the psychodynamic theory the status of Pseudosecience rather than the real science

Question 55

Outline the role of free will in the humanistic approach

Answer 55

• It assumes that every individual can assert free will and have a choice in how they behave
• This means that everyone can consciously control and influence their own personal destiny, even with the constraints that exist in life from outside forces
• This idea makes this approach radically different from other approaches and suggests to some extent that human behaviour is determined

Question 56

What are the stages of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, and what is a basic definition of what it is?

Answer 56

• It is an enduring model of psychological development
• 1st stage= Physiological needs- the most basic human needs to be met are biological eg. air, food, water and shelter
• 2nd= Safety and Security- resources, employment, family and health
• 3rd= Love and Belonging- friends, family and a sexual partner
• 4th= Self-esteem- respect from others and confidence
• 5th= Self-actualisation- drive to reach full potential

Question 57

What is Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs?

Answer 57

• Once all other stages have been met, people can turn their attention to self-actualisation which is the top of the hierarchy which includes accepting the world as it is
• Whilst Maslow suggested that it’s often the case that individuals work up through the hierarchy, he recognised that this isn’t always the case eg. some may need to address their need for self-esteem before finding love

Question 58

Explain what is meant by self-actualisation

Answer 58

• It’s rare
• It’s achievement provides the possibility of true self-awareness and an honest relationship with the realities of the imperfect world
• Maslow believed that self-actualisation takes the form of peak experiences which are characterised by feeling of euphoria and seeing the world with awe and without fear
• He cited Einstein as an individual who had famously achieved self-actualisation through his creativeness

Question 59

Humanistic approach focuses on self. What does this mean?

Answer 59

• Rogers was primarily interested in 2 basic human needs; self-worth and the need for unconditional positive regard from others
• Both emerge from good relationships with supportive parents in childhood and later with friends and partners
• An individuals self-worth has a direct impact on psychological well being

Question 60

Describe the role of conditions of worth in humanistic psychology

Answer 60

• When an individual is the recipient of unconditional positive regard, they develop conditions of worth as a result
• Parents are often the people who provide a child with unconditional positive regard during their upbringing
• However, some parents impose conditions of worth on their children meaning that they must behave in certain ways to receive this positive regard
• Conditions of worth are a type of expectation whereby an individual feels that their approval is dependant upon meeting them in order for others to see them favourably
• It’s possible that a person will only feel self-acceptance should they meet these conditions of worth set by others which can produce a feeling of incongruence

Question 61

Describe what is meant by congruence?

Answer 61

• For Rogers, unhappiness and dissatisfaction were the outcomes of a psychological gap between self-concept and the ideal self
• When these 2 concepts are incongruent, it’s necessary to use defence mechanisms to provide protection against feeling negative
• However, when there is an agreement between an individuals self-concept and their ideal self, they are said to be in a state of congruence
• Yet its uncommon for a person to be congruent all of the time

Question 62

Describe the influence of humanistic psychology on counselling

Answer 62

• Rogerian therapys purpose was to close the gap of incongruence between self-concept and the ideal self, and thus allow an individual to recognise both their psychological limits and their strengths and achieve a realistic balance between them
• Rogers believed that through taking a client-centred (person-centred) approach to counselling, an individual would be helped to make positive steps towards reaching their issues, learn a deeper understanding of themselves and ultimately achieve self-actualisation
• The role of therapist in this process is to provide unconditional positive regard to the client
• When the client feel supported, their conditions of worth affecting their self-concept will dissipate enabling them to move towards their ideal self

Question 63

Evaluation of the humanistic approach;

Practical Application

Answer 63

• Strength of humanistic psychology is that it has had a major influence on psychological counselling
• Contemporary therapists use Rogers’ idea of unconditional positive regard and help clients work towards self-awareness
• This means it’s a useful theory with real-world applications
• It is, in fact, impossible to imagine modern client-centred therapy without it’s insights

Question 64

Evaluation of the humanistic approach;

Research Support for conditions of worth

Answer 64

• Research with adolescents has shown evidence consistent with Roger’s view, eg. those that experience conditional positive regard are likely to display more ‘false self behaviour’
• Harter et al discovered that teenagers who feel they have to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain their parents approval frequently end up not liking themselves
• The research found that teens who create a ‘false self’ are also more likely to develop depression and tendency to lose touch with their own true self
• Such research provides evidence for the idea of conditions of worth and highlights the impact they can have on people’s lives

Question 65

Evaluation of the humanistic approach;

Cultural bias

Answer 65

• Limitation of the humanistic approach is that certain elements of it are bound to certain cultures
• Research by Nevis conducted in China found belongingness needs were seen as more fundamental than physiological needs and self-actualisation was defined more in terms of contributions to the community rather than individual development
• Consistent with this research, other research has shown that Europeans and Americans focus more on personal identity in defining self-concept whereas Japan defines it more in terms of social relations
• This shows that humanistic ideas cannot be applied universally and certain adaptations must be made in order for them to be useful cross culturally