What is real science?

Question 1

What is Science?

Answer 1

• Empirical: evidence from observations made under controlled conditions
• Rational: consistent with established facts and free of logical errors
• Testable: has to have possible outcomes that disprove the explanation
• Parsimonious: the simplest explanation with fewest assumptions
• General: explanation holds under many circumstances
• Tentative: confidence in explanation, but openness to revise if proven wrong
• Rigorously evaluated: peer reviewed and under constant pressure to be replaced by better explanation

Question 2

What is Pseudoscience?

Answer 2

Situation specific→ cannot be falsified 
• Vague studies→ cannot be replicated 
• No exploration of mechanisms → no progress in knowledge 
• Strong personal interest 
• Relies on persuasion through
- impressive-sounding jargon 
- authority
- belief/faith

Question 3

Common-sense explanation

Answer 3

“This information has been passed down from generations. Because it is so old it must be true.” 
Wrong because: 
•	incomplete, 
•	inconsistent with other evidence 
•	lacking generality

Question 4

Rational Method

Answer 4

I. All students in Maastricht have bikes.
II. II. Merle is a student in Maastricht.
III. Merle must have a bike.

• True assumptions produce true statements
• Few assumptions are 100% true
• Can lead to testable questions

Question 5

Method of Authority

Answer 5

“This is the best toothpaste available!” Dr.med.Reinard
• Possible bias
• often accepted without questioning

Question 6

Circular explanations/tautology

Answer 6

“I am angry when I’m hungry. But it is ok, because hungry people get angry.”
Does not have:
• Independent measure
• Explanatory concept

Question 7

Scientific Method

Answer 7

1.	Observation & Induction 
•	Initial point of interest
•	2 observable/measurable variables 
•	Using Induction: Specific to general 
o	“Lena’s bike has flowers. Girls like bikes with flowers.” 
→Data driven
2.	Hypothesis & Deduction
•	Hypothesis: Testable, falsifiable, positive, parsimonious
Using Deduction: general to specific. 
•	“Girls like bikes with flowers.
Girls tend to choose a bike with flowers.” 
→Theory driven 
3.	Observing & Experimenting 
•	Observation to test validity 
•	Choosing type of research (correlational, quasi-experimental, experimental) 
4.	Refining & Retesting 
•	Adjusting hypothesis 
•	Repeat testing

Question 8

Exam question:
Having troubles sleeping? Now it is the time to change this! These capsules, equipped with our revolutionary technology, create micro vibrations around 9Hz. This will facilitate sound sleep, since this frequency is linked to deep and relaxing sleep. If it doesn’t work for you, this like due to immaterial vibrations that are constantly emitted from near planetary bodies.
Is there a problem here?
1. No, since an explanation regarding the underlying mechanisms was given.
2. No, since an explanation for potential failures was given.
3. Yes, mainly because the claim is not falsifiable.
4. Yes, mainly because the explanation is not parsimonious enough.

Answer 8

answer 3

Question 9

Exam question:
Chocolate with strawberries. You know you like it, but does everyone? You ask around. Lisa and Merle are also crazy about this culinary combination. You ask around in your family and 3 out of 3 also agree. You are ready for your conclusion: People generally like chocolate with strawberries! 
What type of reasoning did you us 
1.	Deductive reasoning 
2.	Inductive reasoning 
3.	Reductive reasoning 
4.    Common sense explanation

Answer 9

answer 2