What impact did the resurgence of nationalism play in the collapse of the USSR?

Question 1

Why was the Brezhnev Doctrine formulated?

Answer 1

Following Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia in 1968 to prevent the Czech government from introducing liberal reforms in response to popular protest.

Question 2

What did Brezhnev say about the Doctrine?

Answer 2

“Whenever internal and external forces hostile to Socialism try to reverse the development of a Socialist country towards the restoration of capitalism… this becomes the concern of all Socialist countries.”

Question 3

Where had the threat of Soviet intervention been successful previously?

Answer 3

In Poland, in the period 1980-81, the threat of Soviet intervention was enough to persuade the Polish government to impose martial law as a response to popular protest. The unrest was suppressed.

Question 4

When did Gorbachev inform Eastern Europe’s leader of his change in foreign policy?

Answer 4

At the funeral of Chernenko in March 1985.
He told them all individually that the Soviets would not intervene in internal affairs and they were free to follow their own path to socialism.

Question 5

Why were Gorbachev’s hopes for economic reform influential in the decision to repeal the Doctrine?

Answer 5

The USSR spent approximately $40 billion supporting other communist regimes around the world, particularly in Eastern Europe. Gorbachev hoped that this money could be used to promote domestic reform instead and that other countries would follow suit.

Question 6

The end of the Brezhnev meant what for the people of Eastern Europe?

Answer 6

They could now choose their own governments, communist or not.

Question 7

Why did the Communist Party have negative connotations for many Eastern Europeans?

Answer 7

Because communist control had been imposed after WWII and it was associated with Soviet dominance.

Question 8

What is evidence of the Soviets staying true to their word?

Answer 8

In Poland, the government gave into pressure from a workers’ group, Solidarity, and allowed them to stand, alongside other political parties, in the upcoming elections of 1989. Solidarity defeated the communists in a landslide victory and the Party collapsed as an organisation in Poland. The USSR did nothing; Gorbachev appeared to even support the Poles for making their own decision.

Question 9

Communist Collapse: Hungary

Answer 9

In Hungary, the pressure for reform came from within the Communist Party itself, and in 1988 the hardline leader who had been in power since 1956, Janos Kadar, was sacked. The government was now dominated by reformers and they allowed other political parties to stand in elections.

Question 10

Communist Collapse: East Germany

Answer 10

As an artificial country that had been born as a result of international tensions, East Germany relied on Soviet support more than any other nation in the Eastern bloc. Gorbachev’s visit to East Berlin in October 1989, encouraged those who wished to reform to push harder. Egon Krenz, who became leader of the GDR in October 1989, did nothing to stop the growing pressure for reform, which was now manifesting itself in mass demonstrations, and instead decided to open the Berlin Wall. On the 9th of November, the Wall was physically removed by “people power”.

Question 11

Communist Collapse: Romania

Answer 11

-Romania was afflicted by the weaknesses seen elsewhere: a discontented population fed up with a repressive government, lack of consumer goods, lack of real democracy, and tired of food shortages. Demonstrations began and the government collapsed. When Romania’s leader, Nicolae Caeausescu, ordered the army to fire against demonstrators, it only made things worse. By December 1989, even the army were unwilling to support Nicolae and he was forced to flee. Nevertheless, he was arrested and subsequently executed on Christmas Day, signalling the end of Communist rule in Romania.

Question 12

Communist Collapse: Czechoslovakia

Answer 12

In November 1989, the government was forced to make concessions as a result of popular calls for reform and demonstrations. An organization, Civic Forum, emerged to co-ordinate the removal of the Communist government. Finally, due to sustained pressure, the government caved and reformed, and in December 1989, Havel, a popular playwright and anti-Communist, was elected President.

Question 13

Nationalism played a significant role in what?

Answer 13

Mobilizing people power against the repressive, Soviet-imposed governments. Where people power had been less significant, in Hungary or Bulgaria for example, reformers within the Party had taken it upon themselves to initiate change and assert national independence.
It had largely been a peaceful movement, aside from Romania and Yugoslavia where blood had been shed, but even then, the regime was overthrown.

Question 14

By the end of 1989, every pro-Soviet communist government in Eastern Europe had what?

Answer 14

Disintegrated. Gorbachev’s foreign policy had a clear affect on the context in which these governments operated and it was therefore a key factor in establishing and encouraging national independence.

Question 15

Factors encouraging the growth of nationalism within the USSR: Factor 1

Answer 15

Environmental Issues:
This issue was of particular concern to those in the outlying regions of the Soviet Union where damage had been greatest; for example, industrial pollution in the Baltic states was a major concern.
These issues gave many locals a focal point with which to rally against the government in Moscow.

Question 16

Factors encouraging the growth of nationalism within the USSR: Factor 2

Answer 16

The insecurity of local Party leaders:
They were often those who felt the most threatened by Gorbachev’s reforms. Many had been promoted, due to corruption and the “stability of cadres”, which Brezhnev had ignored. Gorbachev now threatened these officials comfortable lifestyles and so they often lent their support to local concerns in an attempt to maintain their position. Those who were seen as lackeys of Moscow were deeply hated.

Question 17

Factors encouraging the growth of nationalism within the USSR: Factor 3

Answer 17

Culture and Language:
By the 1980s, the Soviet Union was made up by 145 million Russians and 141 million non-Russians. Among the non-Russians were Slavic people, such as the Lithuanians, Estonians, and the Ukrainians. The non-Slavic peoples were primarily Muslims in the Central Asian regions. These peoples often had a strong sense of their own identity through their culture and traditions.

Question 18

Why did the growth of nationalist sentiments in the Baltic Republics pose more of a threat to the Soviet Union? (3)

Answer 18

• Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania had different histories to the rest of the Soviet Union. They had been independent states until they were incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1939, and many remembered this. Some still viewed the Soviets as an occupying force.
• The Baltic states had a higher level of education than the Soviet average and this helped them understand their culture, history, and language
• They were among the more economically developed regions of the USSR

Question 19

Why was the nationalist movement given strength and unity in Lithuania particularly?

Answer 19

Because over 75% of the population were ethnic Lithuanians.

Question 20

What happened between April and October 1988 in the three Baltic states?

Answer 20

Popular Fronts were set up. The lead was taken up by the intelligentsia who set up movements (Sajudis) which quickly developed into mass organizations.
They called for protection of their cultural traditions and native languages but soon called for independence from the Soviet Union.

Question 21

Why was August 1989 so important for the nationalist movement?

Answer 21

It marked 50 years since the Nazi-Soviet pact which had resulted in Soviet annexation of the three republics; its anniversary was used to call for independence. A mass demonstration saw people form a human chain across all three republics in a call for an end to the pact. It was a show of independence.

Question 22

What happened to the Popular Fronts in 1990?

Answer 22

They won a majority in elections to the Supreme Soviet across all three Baltic states.
Lithuania took the lead in announcing its independence from the Soviet Union. In March, the speaker of the Lithuanian Supreme Soviet announced Lithuania was an independent state and the other two republics soon followed suit. This was an illegal act and a direct challenge to the Soviet government.

Question 23

What did the Soviet government do in response to the declarations of independence by the Baltic states?

Answer 23

They refused to acknowledge the declarations and in January 1991 pro-Soviet communists, supported by some Red Army troops, tried to take over the television station in Vilnius, resulting in at least 13 deaths.
Gorbachev denied responsibility for the force used and it is likely it was instead rogue elements in the army and the KGB, who wanted to pressurize Gorbachev into dealing with the nationalist threat.
Gorbachev could have bowed to this pressure but did not, instead issuing a statement that made it clear calls for independence would not be challenged as long as they followed the correct constitutional channels.

Question 24

What are the 5 limits of nationalization?

Answer 24

• Limited experience of independence: In Ukraine the nationalist group Rukh was founded but it had little support in the eastern part of the country. The Central Asian republics and Belarusia had less experience of independence in their history.
• The Soviet Union had allowed a degree of autonomous control accommodating the wishes of its national peoples by supporting their languages in schools.
• The Soviet republics had been net gainers of economic investment, particularly in the Central Asian republics. This was an advantage for them retaining the Union.
• Loyalty to local and tribal groups was often greater than nationalist sentiment, a feature that lead to violence between different Muslim groups, such as Uzbeks and Turkmens. Any wider national identity was superficial.
• The role of ethnic Russians. The idea of nationalism was complicated by the fact that 60 million Russians lived not in Russia but in the other republics of the Soviet Union.

Question 25

What revealed support for the Union in March 1991? Anything else happen in 1991?

Answer 25

A referendum indicated popular support for maintaining the Union in all republics outside of Georgia and the Baltic states. There was plenty of evidence to suggest the Union could survive without these countries and the collapse of the Communist regime did not necessarily mean the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Furthermore, Gorbachev produced the New Union Treaty in attempt to salvage the USSR, which contained enough concessions for preserving language and customs to maintain support for the union in each republic.

Question 26

How did Yeltsin use nationalism to undermine Gorbachev?

Answer 26

• Yeltsin had been elected Chairman of the Russian Supreme Soviet in March 1990 and from that position he was able to undermine Gorbachev’s Union Treaty. He called for a much looser arrangement, a commonwealth of Independent States of the former Soviet Republics. The August coup of 1991 put an end to any hopes of the Union Treaty working and thus an end to the Soviet Union.
• Yeltsin was happy to encourage Russian nationalism in an attempt to undermine Gorbachev further. He also encouraged the national groups of non-Russians to “take as much sovereignty as you can stomach.”

Question 27

Was Russian nationalism popular?

Answer 27

It was not a popular mass movement, and was generally only popular among the intelligentsia.
Most Russian organizations were intertwined with Soviet ones and so there was little differentiation between the two. Russian nationalism was largely connected to the idea of a Russian-dominated Soviet Union, and so the widespread collapse of support for the union across the republics signified the fight was already lost.