What Are Civil Rights and How Do We Identify Them? Flashcards
1
Q
civil rights
A
guarantees by the government that it will treat people equally—particularly people belonging to groups that have historically been denied the same rights and opportunities as others.
2
Q
The due process clause of the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution enacted what?
A
the Declaration of Independence’s proclamation that “all men are created equal”
3
Q
equal protection clause
A
states, in part, that “No State shall . . . deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.”
4
Q
When may the government treat people unequally?
A
when unequal treatment is necessary to maintain important governmental interests such as public safety.
5
Q
civil liberties
A
limitations on government power designed to protect our fundamental freedoms.
6
Q
How must the constituion be applied?
A
On an equal basis
7
Q
The Supreme Court’s interpretation of the Equal Protections Clause
A
“all persons similarly circumstanced shall be treated alike.”3 If people are not similarly circumstanced, however, they may be treated differently.”
8
Q
How does the gov decide if discrimination is lawful
A
In most cases when the courts are deciding whether discrimination is unlawful, the government has to demonstrate only that it has a good reason to do so. Unless the person or group challenging the law can prove otherwise, the courts will generally decide the discriminatory practice is allowed.
9
Q
rational basis test
A
as long as there’s a reason for treating some people differently that is “rationally related to a legitimate government interest,” the discriminatory act or law or policy is acceptable.
10
Q
Discrimination based on gender or sex is generally examined with what?
A
with intermediate scrutiny.
11
Q
What does examining with intermediate scrutiny require?
A
It requires the government to demonstrate that treating men and women differently is “substantially related to an important governmental objective.”
12
Q
What burdern does intermediate scrutiny put on the
A
to demonstrate why the unequal treatment is justifiable, not on the individual who alleges unfair discrimination has taken place. In
13
Q
what does intermediate scrutinty look like in practice?
A
place. In practice, this means laws that treat men and women differently are sometimes upheld, although usually they are not.
14
Q
Discrimination against members of racial, ethnic, or religious groups or those of various national origins is reviewed to the greatest degree by the courts, which apply the _______ standard in these cases.
A
strict scrutiny
15
Q
How is the burden of proof on the gov under strict scrutiny
A
to demonstrate that there is a compelling governmental interest in treating people from one group differently from those who are not part of that group—the law or action can be “narrowly tailored” to achieve the goal in question, and that it is the “least restrictive means” available to achieve that goal.9 In other words, if there is a non-discriminatory way to accomplish the goal in question, discrimination should not take place.
16
Q
Strict Scrutiny now vs in history
A
In the modern era, laws and actions that are challenged under strict scrutiny have rarely been upheld. Strict scrutiny, however, was the legal basis for the Supreme Court’s 1944 upholding of the legality of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II, discussed later in this chapter.
17
Q
affirmative action
A
consists of government programs and policies designed to benefit members of groups historically subject to discrimination.
18
Q
Most of the controversy surrounding Affirmative action
A
Much of the controversy surrounding affirmative action is about whether strict scrutiny should be applied to these cases.
19
Q
The rest of the world compared to the US at the time of the writing of the constitution
A
More discrimitory then in todays time, but less discriminatory compared to the rest of the world
20
Q
The aftermath of what marked a turning point for civil rights?
A
The aftermath of the Civil War
21
Q
Why did The aftermath of the Civil War marked a turning point for civil rights.
A
The Republican majority in Congress was enraged by the actions of the reconstituted governments of the southern states. In these states, many former Confederate politicians and their sympathizers returned to power and attempted to circumvent the Thirteenth Amendment’s freeing of enslaved men and women by passing laws known as the Black codes. To override the southern states’ actions, lawmakers in Congress proposed two amendments to the Constitution designed to give political equality and power to formerly enslaved people.
22
Q
Can new civil rights issues emerge with time?
A
yes
23
Q
We can identify true discrimination by applying the following analytical process:
A
- Which groups? First, identify the group of people who are facing discrimination.
- Which right(s) are threatened? Second, what right or rights are being denied to members of this group?
- What do we do? Third, what can the government do to bring about a fair situation for the affected group? Is proposing and enacting such a remedy realistic?
24
Q
The longest and greatest struggle for rights was by whom?
A
African Americans
25
What did Thomas Jefferson do when he reckognized that he owned slaves and yet claimed that“all men are created equal” and “are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”
He recognized this contradiction, personally considered the institution of slavery to be a “hideous blot” on the nation, and agreed to free those he held in bondage upon his death.13
26
How did the founders address slavery after claiming “all men are created equal” and “are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”
They just didn't address it
27
Describe political support for the abolition of slavery at the time of the creating of the constitution
Political support for abolition was very much a minority stance in the United States at the time, although after the Revolution many of the northern states followed the European example of fifty years prior in abolishing slavery.14
28
What happened as the US expanded westwards?
As the new United States expanded westward, however, the issue of slavery became harder to ignore and ignited much controversy.
29
Why did the controversy over slavery grow as the US expanded westwards?
Many opponents of slavery were willing to accept the institution if it remained largely confined to the South but did not want it to spread westward.
30
Why were did oppnonents of slavery want to keep slavery confined to the south?
They feared the expansion of slavery would lead to the political dominance of the South over the North and would deprive small farmers in the newly acquired western territories who could not afford to enslave others.15
31
What did Abolonists of slavery argue?
argued that slavery was immoral and contrary to the nation's values and demanded an end to it.
32
The spread of slavery into the West seemed inevitable, however, following the Supreme Court’s 1857 ruling in which case?
Dred Scott v. Sandford
33
Dred Scott v. Sandford
The justices rejected Scott's argument that though he had been born into slavery, his time spent in free states and territories where slavery had been banned by the federal government had made him a free man. In fact, the Court’s majority stated that Scott had no legal right to sue for his freedom at all because Black people (whether free or enslaved) were not, and could not become, U.S. citizens. Thus, Scott lacked the standing to even appear before the court. The Court also held that Congress lacked the power to decide whether slavery would be permitted in a territory that had been acquired after the Constitution was ratified. This decision had the effect of prohibiting the federal government from passing any laws that would limit the expansion of slavery into any part of the West.
34
Ultimately, of course, the issue of slavery was decided by what?
the Civil War
35
What were the southern states fighting for in the Civil War?
the southern states seceding to defend "states’ rights,” specifically, the purported right to own human property, without federal interference.
36
How did Abraham Lincoln change his policies over the course of the Civil War?
Although at the beginning of the war, President Abraham Lincoln had been willing to allow slavery to continue in the South to preserve the Union, he changed his policies regarding abolition over the course of the war.
37
The first step Abraham Lincoln took when it came to changing his policies
The first step was the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863 (Figure 5.4).
38
How was the emacipation proclamation limited?
Although it stated “all persons held as slaves . . . henceforward shall be free,” the proclamation was limited in effect to the states that had rebelled.
39
At the end of the Civil War, the South entered a period called ______________
Reconstruction
40
What happened during the reconstruction era?
during which state governments were reorganized before the rebellious states were allowed to be readmitted to the Union. As part of this process, the Republican Party pushed for a permanent end to slavery.
41
Adding the 13th amendment
Added after the civil war
42
13th amendment
abolished slavery in the US
43
Were the changes by the 13th or 14th amendment more extensive?
14th
44
Why were the changes of the 14th amendment more extensive than those of the 13th?
In addition to introducing the equal protection clause to the Constitution, this amendment also extended the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment to the states, required the states to respect the privileges or immunities of all citizens, and, for the first time, defined citizenship at the national and state levels.
45
The Fifteenth Amendment stated:
that people could not be denied the right to vote based on “race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”
46
How did the states block black people from voting when they weren't allowed to stop someone from voting based off race?
while states could not deny Black people the right to vote on the basis of race, they could deny it on any number of arbitrary grounds such as literacy, landownership, affluence, or political knowledge.
47
How did the reconstruction era end?
the Reconstruction ended with the end of military rule in the South and the withdrawal of the Union army in 1877.
48
What happened following the withdrawl of the Union Army in the south?
Following the army’s removal, political control of the South fell once again into the hands of White men, and violence was used to discourage Black people from exercising the rights they had been granted.20
49
or disenfranchisement,
The revocation of voting rights,
50
Perhaps the most famous of the tools of disenfranchisement were
were literacy tests and understanding tests.
51
How were literacy tests use to discriminate agaisnt black people?
However, since voter registration officials had discretion to decide what text the voter was to read, they could give easy passages to voters they wanted to register (typically, white people) and more difficult passages to those whose registration they wanted to deny (typically, Black people). Understanding tests required the prospective voter to explain the meaning of a particular passage of text, often a provision of the U.S. Constitution, or answer a series of questions related to citizenship. Again, since the official examining the prospective voter could decide which passage or questions to choose, the difficulty of the test might vary dramatically between African American and white applicants.
52
Even had these tests been administered fairly and equitably, however, most African Americans would have been at a huge disadvantage, because_____________________________________
few had been taught to read.
53
Why did few black people know how to read?
Although schools for Black people had existed in some places, southern states had made it largely illegal to teach enslaved people to read and write.
54
What did the grandfather clause allow for?
Poor, less literate white people to vote
55
Why did some white people disprove of the literacy test?
BEcause there were some less literate white people who couldn't pass the tests
56
How did the grandfather clause work?
The illeterate white people were able to vote for a short period of time,, before the grandfather clause would be declared unconstitutional
57
In states where the voting rights of poor white people were less of a concern, another tool for disenfranchisement was the
poll tax
58
poll tax
This was an annual per-person tax, typically one or two dollars (on the order of $20 to $50 today), that a person had to pay to register to vote.
59
How did the poll tax work?
People who didn’t want to vote didn’t have to pay, but in several states the poll tax was cumulative, so if you decided to vote you would have to pay not only the tax due for that year but any poll tax from previous years as well.
60
How did the poll tax prevent African Americans from voting?
Because formerly enslaved people were usually quite poor, they were less likely than White men to be able to pay poll taxes.
61
How did the white people ensure the black people's vote was meaningless?
the White elites used their control of the Democratic Party to create the white primary: primary elections in which only White people were allowed to vote.
62
white primary:
primary elections in which only White people were allowed to vote.
63
Why did the white primary party argue that they had no obligation to follow the Fifteenth Amendment’s requirement not to deny the right to vote on the basis of race.
Because they were a private group rather than a part of the state government. Furthermore, they contended, voting for nominees to run for office was not the same as electing those who would actually hold office.
64
what did the white primary do?
they held primary elections to choose the Democratic nominee in which only White citizens were allowed to vote.27 Once the nominee had been chosen, they might face token opposition from a Republican or minor-party candidate in the general election, but since White voters had agreed beforehand to support whoever won the Democrats’ primary, the outcome of the general election was a foregone conclusion.
65
What doctrine were segregation laws passed under?
"seperate but equal"
66
What were discrimitory laws called collectively?
Jim Crow laws
67
. The Supreme Court _________ the separate but equal doctrine in 1896 in Plessy v. Ferguson, ____________________________________________________________________
upheld
inconsistent with the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause, and allowed segregation to continue.28
68
Did African Americans agree on the right path forward from segreation?
African American leaders and thinkers themselves disagreed on the right path forward.
69
What did Booker T. Washington believe would end segregation?
Some, like Booker T. Washington, argued that acceptance of inequality and segregation over the short term would allow African Americans to focus their efforts on improving their educational and social status until White people were forced to acknowledge them as equals.
70
How did W.E.B Du Bois believe would end segregation?
W. E. B. Du Bois, argued for a more confrontational approach and in 1909 founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) as a rallying point for securing equality.
71
Who founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
W.E.B Du Bois
72
History of race majorities in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
equality. White liberals dominated the organization in its early years, but Black people assumed control over its operations in the 1920s.29
73
What did the NAACP strategy quickly become?
overturning Jim Crow laws through the courts.
74
NAACP greatest string of legal successes
consisted of its efforts to challenge segregation in education.
75
What did Early cases brought by the NAACP deal with?
racial discrimination in higher education.
76
What choice did the Supreme Court give the states in 1938?
they could either integrate institutions of higher education, or they could establish an equivalent university or college for African Americans.30
77
Did the states choose to allow black people into colleges or to establish colleges for African Americans?
Southern states chose to establish colleges for Black people rather than allow them into all-White state institutions.
78
Brown v. Board of Education
In this case, the Supreme Court unanimously overturned its decision in Plessy v. Ferguson as it pertained to public education, stating that a separate but equal education was a logical impossibility. Even with the same funding and equivalent facilities, a segregated school could not have the same teachers or environment as the equivalent school for another race.
79
Why did the Supreme court decide the only way to dispel inferiority was to integrate schools?
Even with the same funding and equivalent facilities, a segregated school could not have the same teachers or environment as the equivalent school for another race.
80
describe the integration of black and white schools
While integration of public schools took place without much incident in some areas of the South, particularly where there were few Black students, elsewhere, it was confrontational—or nonexistent. In recognition of the fact that southern states would delay school integration for as long as possible, civil rights activists urged the federal government to enforce the Supreme Court’s decision.
81
What in Little Rock, Arkansas did governor Orval Faubus a few months after the integration of races in public schools
A few months later, in Little Rock, Arkansas, governor Orval Faubus resisted court-ordered integration and mobilized National Guard troops to keep Black students out of Central High School. President Eisenhower then called up the Arkansas National Guard for federal duty (essentially taking the troops out of Faubus’s hands) and sent soldiers of the 101st Airborne Division to escort students to and from classes, as shown in Figure 5.7.
82
In Virginia, state leaders employed a strategy of _________ to school integration,
“massive resistance”
83
What did the strategy of massive resistance lead to in Virginia?
the closure of a large number of public schools across the state, some for years.
84
de jure segregation,
segregation mandated by law,
85
What did many white southerners do when de jure segregation ended?
Many White southerners who objected to sending their children to school with Black students then established private academies that admitted only White students; many of these schools remain overwhelmingly White today.35
86
How did many neighborhoods in the north segregate?
Many neighborhoods in northern cities remain segregated by virtue of "red lining" districts where minorities were allowed and not allowed to live.
87
Red linining
Restrictive real estate covenants bound White residents to not sell their houses to African Americans and sometimes not to Chinese, Japanese, Mexicans, Filipinos, Jews, and other ethnic minorities.
88
In New York City in the late 1950s, a group of activist parents led by Mae Mallory protested what?
the inadequate schools in their neighborhood; a court ruled that New York was engaging in de facto segregation, and forced the city to institute policies that would provide more equitable access.
89
How have banks been racist?
for not lending to people of color to buy homes and start business at rates commensurate with similarly situated prospective White borrowers.
90
How did the supreme court evolve in the postwar era of White flight,
into a more progressive force in the promotion and preservation of civil rights.
91
Shelley v. Kraemer (1948),
the Supreme Court held that while such covenants did not violate the Fourteenth Amendment because they consisted of agreements between private citizens, their provisions could not be enforced by courts.37
92
Why would law, the courts’ enforcement of racially restrictive covenants would be a violation of the amendment.
Because state courts are government institutions and the Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the government from denying people equal protection of the law,
93
of Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
the Supreme Court declared that requiring payment of a poll tax in order to vote in an election at any level was unconstitutional.39
94
Howdid Newer, grassroots organizations such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), and Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) affect the NAACP
challenged the NAACP’s position as the leading civil rights organization and questioned its legal-focused strategy.
95
general strategy of groups such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), and Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
These newer groups tended to prefer more confrontational approaches, including the use of direct action campaigns relying on marches and demonstrations. The strategies of nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience, or the refusal to obey an unjust law,
96
civil disobedience,
or the refusal to obey an unjust law,
97
What kind of action were the sit-in campaigns to desegregate lunch counters that began in Greensboro
direct action
98
Were sit ins effective?
While such focused campaigns could be effective, they often had little impact in places where they were not replicated.
99
Some responses to campaigns against segregation
Rosa Parks, a longtime NAACP member and graduate of the Highlander Folk School for civil rights activists, whose actions had begun the Montgomery boycott, received death threats, E. D. Nixon’s home was bombed, and the Freedom Riders were attacked in Alabama.42
100
As the campaign for civil rights continued and gained momentum, President John F. Kennedy called for what?
Congress to pass new civil rights legislation, which began to work its way through Congress in 1963.
101
When President John F. Kennedy called for Congress to pass new civil rights legislation what did the resulting law look like?
was the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which had wide-ranging effects on U.S. society. Not only did the act outlaw government discrimination and the unequal application of voting qualifications by race, but it also, for the first time, outlawed segregation and other forms of discrimination by most businesses that were open to the public, including hotels, theaters, and restaurants that were not private clubs. It outlawed discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, sex, or national origin by most employers, and it created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to monitor employment discrimination claims and help enforce this provision of the law.
102
103
did the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had a monumental impact over the long term, it did not end efforts by many southern White people to maintain the White-dominated political power structure in the region?
no
103
Progress in registering African American voters remained slow in many states despite increased federal activity supporting it, so ____________________________________________________________
civil rights leaders including Martin Luther King, Jr. decided to draw the public eye to the area where the greatest resistance to voter registration drives were taking place.
104
What big event did the leaders of the The SCLC and SNCC plan?
a march from Selma to Montgomery in March 1965.
104
Why did The SCLC and SNCC particularly focused their attention on the city of Selma, Alabama?
because had been the site of violent reactions against civil rights activities.
105
How was the first attempt to march unsuccesful
Their first attempt to march was violently broken up by state police and sheriff’s deputies (
106
How was the second attempt to march unsuccessful?
The second attempt was aborted because King feared it would lead to a brutal confrontation with police and violate a court order from a federal judge who had been sympathetic to the movement in the past.
107
Second march attempt:
That night, three of the marchers, White ministers from the north, were attacked and beaten with clubs by members of the Ku Klux Klan; one of the victims died from his injuries.
108
How many march attempts until success?
3
109
The events at Selma galvanized support in Congress for a follow-up bill solely dealing with
the right to vote.
110
How did the right to vote act go beyond previous laws?
by requiring greater oversight of elections by federal officials.
111
What did Malcom X advocate for?
sought to raise the self-esteem of Black people and advocated for their separation from the United States through eventual emigration to Africa.
112
Malcom X on the civil rights movment
Malcolm X rejected the mainstream civil right's movement's integration and assimilation approach, and laid the foundation for the Black Power movement, which sought self-determination and independence for Black people. His position was attractive to many young African Americans, especially after Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated in 1968.
113
busing
transporting students from one segregated neighborhood to another to achieve more racially balanced schools—
114
de facto segregation
a form of segregation that results from the choices of individuals to live in segregated communities without government action or support.
115
Today, a lack of well-paying jobs in many urban areas, combined with the poverty resulting from the legacies of slavery, Jim Crow era terror, and persistent racism, has what?
trapped many Black people in under-served neighborhoods with markedly lower opportunity and life expectancy.53
116
The Obama administration proposed new rules under the Fair Housing Act that were intended to what?
lead to more integrated communities in the future; however, the Trump administration repeatedly sought to weaken the Fair Housing Act, primarily through lack of enforcement of existing regulations.
117
Indeed, the women’s movement came about largely as a result of:
the difficulties women encountered while trying to abolish slavery.
118
What convention was a trailblazer for women's rights
Seneca Falls Convention
119
largely eclipsed the women’s movement throughout most of the nineteenth century.
the abolition and African American civil rights movements
120
Were women allowed to own property at the time of the American Revolution?
Although single women were allowed to own property, married women were not.
121
What happened durring the American Revolution when women married?
not. When women married, their separate legal identities were erased under the legal principle of coverture
122
What happened to their property when women married
Not only did women adopt their husbands’ names, but all personal property they owned legally became their husbands’ property.
123
Could husbands sell their wives?
Husbands could not sell their wives’ real property—such as land or in some states enslaved people—without their permission, but they were allowed to manage it and retain the profits.
124
Could wives legally leave their husbands?
So long as a man provided food, clothing, and shelter for his wife, she was not legally allowed to leave him.
125
Career/education opportunities for women around the time of the American Revolution
Higher education for women was not available, and women were barred from professional positions in medicine, law, and ministry.
126
Did women's condition improve directly after the American Revolution?
nope
127
Women were not granted the right to vote by any of the states except ________, which at first allowed all taxpaying property owners to vote.
New Jersey (until 1807)
128
How did Changes in property laws actually hurt women?
by making it easier for their husbands to sell their real property without their consent.
129
activist Maria W. Stewart became the first American-born woman to
give a speech to a mixed audience.
130
Racism within the suffrage:
calls for segregated marches and a lack of scrutiny on the topic of lynchings, many women were active in the abolition movement and the temperance movement, which tried to end the excessive consumption of liquor.
131
Belief about what women were:
that they were weak, silly creatures who should leave important issues to men.
132
Why was Elizabeth Cady Stanton shocked and angered when she sought to attend an 1840 antislavery meeting in London
only to learn that women would not be allowed to participate and had to sit apart from the men.
133
Who did Elizabeth Cady Stantom meet at an 1840 antislavery meeting?
Lucretia Mott
134
What did Stanton and Mott do in response to their anger at the 1840 anti slavery meeting?
In 1848, Stanton and Mott called for a women’s rights convention, the first ever held specifically to address the subject, at Seneca Falls,
135
What happened at the 1848 Seneca Falls Convention?
Stanton wrote the Declaration of Sentiments, which was modeled after the Declaration of Independence and proclaimed women were equal to men and deserved the same rights.
136
Why were people scared to sign the Declaration of Sentiments?
if women demanded the right to vote, the movement would be considered too radical and its members would become a laughingstock.
137
Did the Declaration of Sentiments pass?
Yes
138
What was the only amendment in the resolution of sentiments not to pass
the resolution demanding suffrage was the only one that did not pass unanimously.68
139
What was the results of feminists like Susan B Anthony fighting for women's rights
As a result of their efforts, several states passed laws that allowed married women to retain control of their property and let divorced women keep custody of their children.69
140
What did Ameilia Campaign for?
campaigned for dress reform, believing women could lead better lives and be more useful to society if they were not restricted by voluminous heavy skirts and tight corsets.
141
Who became first abolitionists and then women’s rights activists.70
Sarah and Angelina Grimke, the daughters of a wealthy slaveholding family in South Carolina,
142
In 1869, Stanton and Anthony formed what?
the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA),
143
What did the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) demand?
the constitution be amended to grant the right to vote to all women. It also called for more lenient divorce laws and an end to sex discrimination in employment.
144
Why were women first granted the right to vote on matters involving liquor licenses, in school board elections, and in municipal elections in several states.
this was often done because of stereotyped beliefs that associated women with moral reform and concern for children, not as a result of a belief in women’s equality.
145
In 1890, the two suffragist groups united to form what?
form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA).
146
How did women call attention to the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA).
To call attention to their cause, members circulated petitions, lobbied politicians, and held parades in which hundreds of women and girls marched through the streets
147
What did Alice Paul lead?
National Woman’s Party (NWP),
148
What did the National Woman’s Party (NWP), advocate for?
the use of stronger tactics.
149
What did the National Woman's Party do as a use of stronger tactics?
The NWP held public protests and picketed outside the White House (Figure 5.13).74 Demonstrators were often beaten and arrested, and suffragists were subjected to cruel treatment in jail.
150
What happened when women went on hunger strikes in jail
their jailers force-fed them, an incredibly painful and invasive experience for the women.
151
Which amendment, in 1920 allowed women to vote?
Finally, in 1920, the triumphant passage of the Nineteenth Amendment granted all women the right to vote.
152
Did the ninteenth amendment end discrimination for women?
the Nineteenth Amendment did not end discrimination against women in education, employment, or other areas of life, which continued to be legal.
153
How were women still discriminated agianst after the ninteenth amendment?
- Although women could vote, they very rarely ran for or held public office.
- Women continued to be underrepresented in the professions, and relatively few sought advanced degrees.
- Until the mid-twentieth century, the ideal in U.S. society was typically for women to marry, have children, and become housewives.
- Those who sought work for pay outside the home were routinely denied jobs because of their sex and, when they did find employment, were paid less than men.
- Women who wished to remain childless or limit the number of children they had in order to work or attend college found it difficult to do so. In some states it was illegal to sell contraceptive devices, and abortions were largely illegal and difficult for women to obtain.
154
When did the second women's rights movement emerge?
1960's
155
Title VII (seven) of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited
prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of sex as well as race, color, national origin, and religion.
156
Why were women denied jobs in the 1960's
because of their sex and were often sexually harassed at the workplace.
157
What did women do in reponse In 1966, feminists who were angered by the lack of progress made by women and by the government’s lackluster enforcement of Title VII. What did they do in response?
organized the National Organization for Women (NOW).
158
What did the National Organization for Women (NOW) promote?
workplace equality, including equal pay for women, and also called for the greater presence of women in public office, the professions, and graduate and professional degree programs.
159
What amendment did the National Organization for Women (NOW) openly support?
the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
160
What did Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) mandate?
equal treatment for all regardless of sex.
161
Was the Equal Rights amendment successful when first proposed to congress?
nah
162
What happened after the uncesccuesful proposition of the Equal Rights amendment in congress?
was introduced in every Congress thereafter but did not pass both the House and the Senate until 1972.
163
What happened when and after the Equal Rights amendment was sent to to the states
1972. The amendment was then sent to the states for ratification with a deadline of March 22, 1979. Although many states ratified the amendment in 1972 and 1973, the ERA still lacked sufficient support as the deadline drew near.
164
What did opponents to the Equal Rights amendment argue:
Opponents, including both women and men, argued that passage would subject women to military conscription and deny them alimony and custody of their children should they divorce.
165
What did congress vote concerning the Equal Rights amendment in 1982?
In 1978, Congress voted to extend the deadline for ratification to June 30, 1982.
166
How did the Equal Rights Amendment fare with the extension?
In 1978, Congress voted to extend the deadline for ratification to June 30, 1982. Even with the extension, however, the amendment failed to receive the support of the required thirty-eight states; by the time the deadline arrived, it had been ratified by only thirty-five, some of those had rescinded their ratifications, and no new state had ratified the ERA during the extension period
167
What led the U.S. House of Representatives to consider and pass legislation to remove the original deadlines for the Equal Rights Amendment?
In 2020, Virginia became the thirty-eighth state to ratify, though well after the deadline.
168
Was the Equal Rights Amendment succesfully ratified?
no
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The Equal Rights Amendment may not have been ratified, but what (similar thing) passed into law as a federal stature?
Title IX (nine)
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What does Title IX apply to?
be). Title IX applies to all educational institutions that receive federal aid and prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex in academic programs, dormitory space, health-care access, and school activities including sports.
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glass ceiling
an invisible barrier caused by discrimination, prevents women from rising to the highest levels of American organizations, including corporations, governments, academic institutions, and religious groups.
172
What did states try to require of abortion clinics?
many states have required abortion clinics to meet the same standards set for hospitals, such as corridor size and parking lot capacity, despite lack of evidence regarding the benefits of such standards. Also, mandated counseling before the procedure and the need for minors to secure parental permission before obtaining abortion services.
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Whole Woman’s Health v. Hellerstedt
cited the lack of evidence for the benefit of larger clinics and further disallowed two Texas laws that imposed special requirements on doctors in order to perform abortions.
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When will the federal government pay for the abortion of low income women?
in cases of rape or incest or in situations in which carrying the fetus to term would endanger the life of the mother.
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comparable worth
, people should be compensated equally for work requiring comparable skills, responsibilities, and effort.
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If we choose to accept the doctrine of comparable worth what would happen
even though women are underrepresented in certain fields, they should receive the same wages as men if performing jobs requiring the same level of accountability, knowledge, skills, and/or working conditions, even though the specific job may be different.
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How have Native Americans have long suffered the effects of segregation and discrimination imposed by the U.S. government and the larger White society.
society. Native Americans were not granted the full rights and protections of U.S. citizenship until long after African Americans and women were, with many having to wait until the Nationality Act of 1940 to become citizens.93
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Elk v. Wilkins
Granted citizenship to African Americans but not Native Americans
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Only group who were forcibly removed en masse from the lands on which they and their ancestors had lived so that others could claim this land and its resources.
Native Americans
180
How were, in the very beginning of European settlement in North America, Native Americans were abused and exploited?
Early British settlers attempted to enslave the members of various tribes, especially in the southern colonies and states.
181
Why were Native Americans denied U.S. citizenship?
Because Native Americans were officially regarded as citizens of other nations,
182
Why were Indian tribes were forced to move from their homelands.
White settlement spread westward over the course of the nineteenth century,
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Why didn't the treaties guaranteeing tribe members the right to live in the places where they had traditionally farmed, hunted, or fished, land-hungry not work?
White settlers routinely violated these agreements and the federal government did little to enforce them.97
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Indian Removal Act
forced Native Americans to move west of the Mississippi River.
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Which tribe in particular resited the Indian Removal Act?
The Cherokee
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Worcester v. Georgia,
the Court ruled that non-Native Americans could not enter tribal lands without the tribe’s permission.
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How did White Georgians react when the Court ruled that non-Native Americans could not enter tribal lands without the tribe’s permission?
refused to abide by the Court’s decision,
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How did President Andrew Jackson react when the Court ruled that non-Native Americans could not enter tribal lands without the tribe’s permission?
refused to enforce it
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Trail of Tears.
Between 1831 and 1838, members of several southern tribes, including the Cherokees, were forced by the U.S. Army to move west along routes shown in Figure 5.15. The forced removal of the Cherokees to Oklahoma Territory, which had been set aside for settlement by displaced tribes and designated Indian Territory, resulted in the death of one-quarter of the tribe’s population.102 The
190
By the time of the Civil War, most Indian tribes had been relocated where?
West of the Mississippi
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Native Americans once again found themselves displaced from west of the Mississippi why?
large numbers of White Americans and European immigrants had also moved west after the Civil War,
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What happened when Native Americans were displaced from west of the Mississippi?
They were confined to reservations, which are federal lands set aside for their use where non-Indians could not settle.
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Description of reservation lands:
Reservation land was usually poor, however, and attempts to farm or raise livestock, not traditional occupations for most western tribes anyway, often ended in failure.
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What did the Native Americans rely on when they were unable to feed themselves on the reservations?
Unable to feed themselves, the tribes became dependent on the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) in Washington, DC, for support.
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What did protestant missionaries do the the Native aMericans?
Protestant missionaries were allowed to “adopt” various tribes, to convert them to Christianity and thus speed their assimilation. In an effort to hasten this process, Native American children were taken from their parents and sent to boarding schools, many of them run by churches, where they were forced to speak English and abandon their traditional cultures.103
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Dawes Severalty Act
effort to assimilate Native Americans to White society,
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What did the Dawes Severalty Act do in 1887?
divided reservation lands into individual allotments. Native Americans who accepted these allotments and agreed to sever tribal ties were also given U.S. citizenship. All lands remaining after the division of reservations into allotments were offered for sale by the federal government to White farmers and ranchers.
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What happened as a result of the divided reservation lands into individual allotments?
As a result, Native Americans swiftly lost control of reservation land.
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How did Curtis Act deal the final blow to Native americans' sovereignty?
by abolishing all tribal governments.105
200
What happened as Native Americans were removed from their tribal lands and increasingly saw their traditional cultures being destroyed over the course of the nineteenth century,
a movement to protect their rights began to grow.
201
Sarah Winnemucca (Figure 5.16), member of the Paiute tribe, lectured throughout the east in the 1880s in order what?
acquaint White audiences with the injustices suffered by the western tribes.
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In 1924, the Indian Citizenship Act granted what?
citizenship to all Native Americans born after its passage.
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Native Americans born before the Indian Citizenship act took effect, who had not already become citizens as a result of the Dawes Severalty Act or service in the army in World War I, had to wait until what to become citizens?
the Nationality Act of 1940 to become citizens.
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the Indian Reorganization Act
which ended the division of reservation land into allotments. It returned to Native American tribes the right to institute self-government on their reservations, write constitutions, and manage their remaining lands and resources. It also provided funds for Native Americans to start their own businesses and attain a college education.107
205
Did conditions on the reservations improve durastically because of the Indian Reorganization Act?
no
206
How did the states justify Native Americans being denied the right to vote when
claiming that Native Americans might be U.S. citizens but were not state residents because they lived on reservations. Other states denied Native Americans voting rights if they did not pay taxes.
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What inspired the Native Americans' civil rights act?
African American civil rights act
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What did a group of Native American activists from various tribes, part of a new Pan-Indian movement do in 1969?
movement, took control of Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay, which had once been the site of a federal prison. Attempting to strike a blow for Red Power, a multi-faceted movement to increase the power of Native Americans united by a Pan-Indian identity and demanding federal recognition of their rights, they maintained control of the island for more than a year and a half. They claimed the land as compensation for the federal government’s violation of numerous treaties and offered to pay for it with beads and trinkets.
209
Why may have the first few NAtive American occupants of Alkatraz leave the island?
Accidental Death of one of the activist's daughters
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Why did the second wave of Native American occupants of Alkatraz leave?
In May 1970, all electricity and telephone service to the island was cut off by the federal government, and more of the occupiers began to leave.
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Why did the last Native American occupants of Alkatraz?
In June, the few people remaining on the island were removed by the government.
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Though the Native American occupancy of Alkatraz was not technically succesful, how was it still beneficial?
it brought national attention to the concerns of Native American activists
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Between the Occupants of Alcatraz or American Indian Movement (AIM) who is more radical?
American Indian Movement (AIM)
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What did the American Indian movement do in 1973?
temporarily took over the offices of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in Washington, DC.
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What did the American Indian Movment do in 1974?
members of AIM and some two hundred Oglala Lakota supporters occupied the town of Wounded Knee on the Lakota tribe’s Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota, the site of an 1890 massacre of Lakota men, women, and children by the U.S. Army
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Why did members of AIM and some two hundred Oglala Lakota supporters occupied the town of Wounded Knee on the Lakota tribe’s Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota, the site of an 1890 massacre of Lakota men, women, and children by the U.S. Army? What were they protesting?
Many of the Oglala were protesting the actions of their half-White tribal chieftain, who they claimed had worked too closely with the BIA. The occupiers also wished to protest the failure of the Justice Department to investigate acts of White violence against Lakota tribal members outside the bounds of the reservation.
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What did the occupation of Wounded Knee lead to?
The occupation led to a confrontation between the Native American protestors and the FBI and U.S. Marshals. Violence erupted; two Native American activists were killed, and a marshal was shot (Figure 5.17).
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What happened after the occupation of Wounded Knee led to violence between Native American protestors and the FBI, US Marshals?
After the second death, the Lakota called for an end to the occupation and negotiations began with the federal government. Two of AIM’s leaders, Russell Means and Dennis Banks, were arrested, but the case against them was later dismissed.111
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The current relationship between the U.S. government and Native American tribes was established by what?
the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975.
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the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975.
1975. Under the act, tribes assumed control of programs that had formerly been controlled by the BIA, such as education and resource management, and the federal government provided the funding.
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What have many Native Americans used their new power in the gov to do?
Many tribes have also used their new freedom from government control to legalize gambling and to open casinos on their reservations.
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How did the states react to the Native Americans establishing casionos in their states?
Although the states in which these casinos are located have attempted to control gaming on Native American lands, the Supreme Court and the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988 have limited their ability to do so.114
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1978 American Indian Religious Freedom Act
granted tribes the right to conduct traditional ceremonies and rituals, including those that use otherwise prohibited substances like peyote cactus and eagle bones, which can be procured only from vulnerable or protected species.115
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1978 law, the Indian Child Welfare Act,
Act, prevented the frequent practice of removing Native American children from their homes and placing them non-Native American families. The law stated that if a child needed to be removed from their family for reasons of welfare and safety, they would be either placed with extended family, members of their own tribe, or members of another tribe—not with non-Native American families.
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McGirt v. Oklahoma
Carpenter v. Murphy, which revolved around a murder case in Oklahoma, became quite salient, given the history of the Trail of Tears. At issue was whether Mr. Murphy committed murder on private land in the state of Oklahoma or on the Muscogee (Creek) reservation and who should have jurisdiction over his case. If the court decided to proclaim the land as a reservation, that would potentially lead to half the State of Oklahoma being designated as such.118 After hearing arguments in late 2018, they did not hand down a decision in 2019.
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McGirt v. Oklahoma,
the Court took the step that strengthened Native American rights. The landmark decision held that a large part of Oklahoma is tribal land. Moreover, the court argued that crimes committed on those lands are subject to federal, not state authority. In this case, Jimcy McGirt was convicted in Oklahoma state court in 1997 of various sexual crimes. McGirt challenged the conviction on the basis that Oklahoma lacked jurisdiction to prosecute a member of the Muscogee Creek Nation tribe for crimes committed on tribal land.119
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Abuses to Alaska Natives and Native Hawaiians
many of the same abuses as Native Americans, including loss of land and forced assimilation.
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What happened following the discovery of oil in Alaska?
however, the state, in an effort to gain undisputed title to oil rich land, settled the issue of Alaska Natives’ land claims with the passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971. According to the terms of the act, Alaska Natives received 44 million acres of resource-rich land and more than $900 million in cash in exchange for relinquishing claims to ancestral lands to which the state wanted title.
228
How did Native Hawaiians also lost control of their land?
acres—through the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893 and the subsequent formal annexation of the Hawaiian Islands by the United States in 1898
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How and when were Hawiians returned slightly more than one million acres of federally owned land to the state of Hawaii.
Two acts passed by Congress in 1900 and 1959, when the territory was granted statehood,
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In September 2015, the U.S. Department of Interior, the same department that contains the Bureau of Indian Affairs created what?
guidelines for Native Hawaiians who wish to govern themselves in a relationship with the federal government similar to that established with Native American and Alaska Native tribes.
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guidelines for Native Hawaiians who wish to govern themselves in a relationship with the federal government similar to that established with Native American and Alaska Native tribes would create such a relationship that?
Such a relationship would grant Native Hawaiians power to govern themselves while remaining U.S. citizens.
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What happened when When non-Native Hawaiians and some Native Hawaiians brought suit on the grounds that, by allowing only Native Hawaiians to vote, the process discriminated against members of other ethnic groups,
a federal district court found the election to be legal.
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While the Supreme Court stopped the election, in September 2016 what happened?
a separate ruling by the Interior Department allowed for a referendum to be held. Native Hawaiians in favor are working to create their own nation.123
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How do American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians still trail behind U.S. citizens of other ethnic backgrounds in many important areas?
These groups continue to suffer widespread poverty and high unemployment. Some of the poorest counties in the United States are those in which Native American reservations are located. These minorities are also less likely than White Americans, African Americans, or Asian Americans to complete high school or college.124 Many American Indian and Alaskan tribes endure high rates of infant mortality, alcoholism, and suicide.125 Native Hawaiians are also more likely to live in poverty than White people in Hawaii, and they are more likely than White Hawaiians to be unhoused or unemployed.126
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Some of these groups fighting for equality often overlooked
because they are not as large of a percentage of the U.S. population as women or African Americans, and because organized movements to achieve equality for them are relatively young.
236
Are the terms Hispanic and Latino the same
no
237
Hispanic
usually refers to native speakers of Spanish or those descended from Spanish-speaking countries.
238
Latino
refers to people who come from, or whose ancestors came from, Latin America.
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Many Latinos became part of the U.S. population following what?
the annexation of Texas by the United States in 1845 and of California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado following the War with Mexico in 1848.
240
What happened to the lationos who initially became a part of the US population?
Most were subject to discrimination and could find employment only as poorly paid migrant farm workers, railroad workers, and unskilled laborers.
241
What resulted from waves of violence aimed at Mexicans and Mexican Americans swept the Southwest.
Southwest. Mexican Americans in Arizona and in parts of Texas were denied the right to vote, which they had previously possessed, and Mexican American children were barred from attending Anglo-American schools.
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What happened During the Great Depression of the 1930s to Mexican immigrants and many Mexican Americans, both U.S.-born and naturalized citizens, living in the Southwest and Midwest?
were deported by the government so that Anglo-Americans could take the jobs that they had once held.
243
What happened to Mexicans when the US entered WW2?
Mexicans were invited to immigrate to the United States as farmworkers under the Bracero (bracero meaning “manual laborer” in Spanish) Program to make it possible for these American men to enlist in the armed services.130
244
What two groups formed the first union to represent agricultural laborers.
Mexican farmworkers joined with Japanese farmworkers, who were also poorly paid,
245
Why was the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) formed?
(LULAC) to protest against discrimination and to fight for greater rights for Latinos.
246
Just as in the case of African Americans, however, true civil rights advances for Hispanic and Latino people did not take place until when?
the end of World War II.
247
What did Mexican American parents do in California, with the assistance of the NAACP, In 1946,
sued several California school districts that forced Mexican and Mexican American children to attend segregated schools.
248
Mendez v. Westminster1947
Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit Court held that the segregation of Mexican and Mexican American students into separate schools was unconstitutional.132
249
Status of Civil Rights for Lations after WW2
Although Latinos made some civil rights advances in the decades following World War II, discrimination continued.
250
Alarmed by the large number of undocumented Mexicans crossing the border into the United States in the 1950s, the United States government did what?
began Operation Wetback (wetback is a derogatory term for Mexicans living unofficially in the United States).
251
To limit the entry of Hispanic and Latino immigrants to the United States, what did congress do?
in 1965 Congress imposed an immigration quota of 120,000 newcomers from the Western Hemisphere.
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young Mexican American civil rights activists called for _________ and began to refer to themselves as __________
1. Brown Power
2. Chicanos,
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Demands by Mexican American activists often focused on what?
improving education for their children,
254
Demands by Mexican American activists often called for what?
school districts to hire teachers and principals who were bilingual in English and Spanish, to teach Mexican and Mexican American history, and to offer instruction in both English and Spanish for children with limited ability to communicate in English.135
255
Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta fought for what?
for the rights of Mexican American agricultural laborers through their organization, the United Farm Workers (UFW), a union for migrant workers they founded in 1962.
256
Chavez, Huerta, and the UFW proclaimed their solidarity with Filipino farm workers by doing what?
joining them in a strike against grape growers in Delano, California, in 1965.
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Strike against grape growers:
In 1965, Ceaser Chavez called upon all U.S. consumers to boycott California grapes (Figure 5.18), and in 1966, he led the UFW on a 300-mile march to Sacramento, the state capital, to bring the state farm workers’ problems to the attention of the entire country. The strike finally ended in 1970 when the grape growers agreed to give the pickers better pay and benefits.137
258
As Latino immigration to the United States increased in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, what also increased
discrimination towards them
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Proposition 187
The proposition sought to deny non-emergency health services, food stamps, welfare, and Medicaid to undocumented immigrants. It also banned children from attending public school unless they could present proof that they and their parents were legal residents of the United States.
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What happened to propsition 187
it was found unconstitutional
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In 2005, discussion began in Congress on proposed legislation that would make it a felony to enter the United States illegally or to give assistance to anyone who had done so. Although the bill quickly died, on May 1, 2006, hundreds of thousands of people, primarily Latinos, staged public demonstrations in major U.S. cities, by:
refusing to work or attend school for one day.
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What did protestors of the 2005 proposed legislation of congress (that would make it a felony to enter the United States illegally or to give assistance to anyone who had done so) claim?
The protestors claimed that people seeking a better life should not be treated as criminals and that undocumented immigrants already living in the United States should have the opportunity to become citizens.
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What happened Following the failure to make undocumented immigration a felony under federal law,
attempted to impose their own sanctions on unauthorized entry.
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Arizona v. United States
In April 2010, Arizona passed a law that made illegal immigration a state crime. The law also forbade undocumented immigrants from seeking work and allowed law enforcement officers to arrest people suspected of being in the U.S. illegally. Thousands protested the law, claiming that it encouraged racial profiling. the U.S. Supreme Court struck down those provisions of the law that made it a state crime to reside in the United States illegally, forbade undocumented immigrants to take jobs, and allowed the police to arrest those suspected of being illegal immigrants.140 The court, however, upheld the authority of the police to ascertain the immigration status of someone suspected of being an undocumented entrant if the person had been stopped or arrested by the police for other reasons.141
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largest minority group in the United States.
Latinos
266
The Trump's border control:
Aside from the proposal to build a border wall, other areas of action have included various travel bans and the policy of separating families at the border as they attempt to enter the country.
267
What are Asian Americans sterotyped as?
"the model minority" (because it is assumed they are generally financially successful and do well academically),
268
first large group of Asian people to immigrate to the United States.
the chinese
269
Where were Asian peopleian people arrived in the US to work where?
They arrived in large numbers in the mid-nineteenth century to work in the mining industry and on the Central Pacific Railroad. Others worked as servants or cooks or operated laundries.
270
What led to the ban of Chinese immigration?
laundries. Their willingness to work for less money than White workers led White workers in California to call for a ban on Chinese immigration.
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Exclusion Act,
prevented Chinese from immigrating to the United States for ten years and prevented Chinese already in the country from becoming citizens
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Geary Act
extended the ban on Chinese immigration for another ten years.
273
What did the law that California passed in 1913 prohibit asian people from doing?
California passed a law preventing all Asian people, not just the Chinese, from owning land.
274
With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924, all Asian people, with the exception of Filipinos, were prevented from what?
immigrating to the United States or becoming naturalized citizens. Laws in several states barred marriage between Chinese and White Americans, and some cities with large Asian populations required Asian children to attend segregated schools.145
275
What happened to citizens of Japanese decent durring WW2 living on the West coast?
were subjected to the indignity of being removed from their communities and interned under Executive Order 9066 (Figure 5.20).
276
Why were citizens of Japanese descent living on the West Coast, whether naturalized immigrants or Japanese Americans born in the United States,subjected to the indignity of being removed from their communities and interned under Executive Order 9066?
The reason was fear that they might prove disloyal to the United States and give assistance to Japan.
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How was fear that they might prove disloyal to the United States and give assistance to Japan proved unreasonable?
Japan. Although Italians and Germans suspected of disloyalty were also interned by the U.S. government, only the Japanese were imprisoned solely on the basis of their ethnicity. None of the more than 110,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans internees was ever found to have committed a disloyal act against the United States, and many young Japanese American men served in the U.S. army during the war.
278
When japanese internees returned from the camps after the war was over, many of them discovered that the
the houses, cars, and businesses they had left behind, often in the care of White neighbors, had been sold or destroyed.148
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What inspired many Asian Americans to demand their own rights.
The growth of the African American, Chicano, and Native American civil rights movements in the 1960s
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Discrimination against Asian Americans, regardless of national origin, increased during________________
the Vietnam War.
281
violence directed indiscriminately against Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, and Vietnamese caused what?
caused members of these groups to unite around a shared pan-Asian identity,
282
In 1968, students of Asian ancestry at the University of California at Berkeley formed what?
the Asian American Political Alliance
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Lau v. Nichols
Chinese American students in San Francisco sued the school district, claiming its failure to provide them with assistance in learning English denied them equal educational opportunities.150 The Supreme Court found in favor of the students.
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Why were Asian Americans in a much better position to defend their rights.
educational achievement and economic success
285
By the late nineteenth century, homosexuality was regarded as:
a form of mental illness as well as a sin, and gay men were often erroneously believed to be pedophiles.
286
Orientation Secrecy became even more important in the 1950s because?
fear of gay men increased and the federal government believed they could be led into disloyal acts through blackmail by Soviet agents.
287
Why did Fears of lesbians also increased after World War II
society stressed conformity to traditional gender roles and the importance of marriage and childrearing.154
288
Why was it difficult for the LGBTQ community to fight for their rights?
The very secrecy in which lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people had to live made it difficult for them to organize to fight for their rights as other, more visible groups had done.
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__________________, established in 1950, was one of the first groups to champion the rights of gay men.
The Mattachine Society
290
Mattachine Society's goal
Its goal was to unite gay men who otherwise lived in secrecy and to fight against abuse.
291
Who did the Mattachine Society work closely with?
Daughters of Bilitis, a lesbian rights organization.
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police entrapment of gay men
police entrapment of gay men in which plain-clothes police officers would enter neighborhoods or establishments known to be frequented by gay people, and act as if they were interested in a sexual encounter; then the police would arrest those they said propositioned them.
293
Law enforcement abuses of LBGTQ community:
Law enforcement abuses against LGBTQ people took many forms. Some of the activities were encoded in laws, while others were interpretations of older laws or simply policies of individual cities or departments. In many places, any act related to same-sex relationships, such as holding hands, kissing, or dancing, was forbidden in public. As a result, police frequently raided what were known as gay bars, often committing sexually humiliating acts against patrons. Transgender people faced some of the worst treatment. Dressing in drag would result in arrest and prosecution. Transgender people were subjected to public strip searches and were groped beneath their undergarments to determine their sex.
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Stonewall Inn
In June 1969, gay men, lesbians, and transgender people erupted in violence when New York City police attempted to arrest customers at a gay bar in Greenwich Village called the Stonewall Inn.
295
How did the Stonewall change things for the LGBTQ community?
New organizations promoting LGBTQ rights that emerged after Stonewall were more radical and confrontational than the Mattachine Society and the Daughters of Bilitis had been. These groups, like the Gay Activists Alliance and the Gay Liberation Front, called not just for equality before the law and protection against abuse but also for “liberation,” Gay Power, and Gay Pride.156
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Civil rights advancements for the LGBTQ community in the early 1970's
The decade saw 18 states decriminalize same-sex relations, following Illinois and Connecticut, which had done so in the 1960s. In 1973, the American Psychological Association ended its classification of homosexuality as a mental disorder.
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“Don’t ask, don’t tell.”
officially prohibited discrimination against gay, lesbian, and bisexual people by the U.S. military. It also prohibited superior officers from asking about or investigating the sexual orientation of those below them in rank.
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Lawrence v. Texas
the Supreme Court ruled unconstitutional fourteen remaining states' laws that criminalized sexual intercourse between consenting adults of the same sex.
299
Why did LGBTQ activists fight for the right to marry?
marry. Same-sex marriages would allow partners to enjoy exactly the same rights as married heterosexual couples and accord their relationships the same dignity and importance.
300
What happened when the LGBTQ was allowed to marry in Massachueses
This development prompted a backlash among many religious conservatives, who considered homosexuality a sin and argued that allowing same-sex couples to marry would lessen the value and sanctity of heterosexual marriage.
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in Obergefell v. Hodges
, the Supreme Court overturned state bans and made same-sex marriage legal throughout the United States on June 26, 2015 (Figure 5.21).160
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The legalization of same-sex marriage throughout the United States led to what?
some people to feel their religious beliefs were under attack, and many religiously conservative business owners have refused to acknowledge LBGT rights or the legitimacy of same-sex marriages.
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Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA).
it was intended to extend protection to minority religions, such as by allowing rituals of the Native American Church. However, the Supreme Court in City of Boerne v. Flores (1997) ruled that the 1993 law applied only to the federal government and not to state governments.161 Thus several state legislatures later passed their own Religious Freedom Restoration Acts.
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well. While the Supreme Court ruled in 2020 that employers cannot discriminate based on sexual orientation and transgender status, LGBTQ people are not protected from what?
housing discrimination
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The federal Department of Housing and Urban Development has indicated that refusing to rent or sell homes to transgender people may be considered what?
sex discrimination, but there is no nationwide clarity on the law.
306
The enactment of the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, also known as the Matthew Shepard Act, in 2009 did what?
made it a federal hate crime to attack someone based on gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, or disability and made it easier for federal, state, and local authorities to investigate hate crimes, but it has not necessarily made the world safer for LGBTQ Americans.
307
How are people with disabilities discrinated against?
- denied employment and access to public education.
- Many were institutionalized.
-A eugenics movement sought to encourage childbearing among White people without disabilities and discourage it among those with physical or intellectual disabilities.
- Many states passed laws prohibiting marriage among people who had what were believed to be hereditary “defects.”
- In some states, programs existed to sterilize people considered “feeble minded” by the standards of the time, without their will or consent.166
- Buck v. Bell, upheld the right of state governments to sterilize those people believed likely to have children who would become dependent upon public welfare.
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Who is considered disabled?
Among those affected were people who were blind or deaf, those with epilepsy, people with intellectual or developmental disabilities, and those with mental illnesses.
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By the 1970s, however, concern for extending equal opportunities to all led to the passage of two important acts by Congress:
- Rehabilitation Act
- Education for all Handicapped Children Act of 1975,
310
Rehabilitation Act
made it illegal to discriminate against people with disabilities in federal employment or in programs run by federal agencies or receiving federal funding.
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Handicapped Children Act of 1975,
which required public schools to educate children with disabilities.
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In 1990, the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) did what?
greatly expanded opportunities and protections for people of all ages with disabilities. It also significantly expanded the categories and definition of disability. The
313
Americans with Disabilities Act
prohibits discrimination in employment based on disability. It also requires employers to make reasonable accommodations available to workers who need them. Finally, the ADA mandates that public transportation and public accommodations be made accessible to those with disabilities.
314
Who did those who opposed the Americans with Diablities Act argue?
that the cost of providing accommodations would be prohibitive for small businesses.
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Why is this ironic: The right to worship as a person chooses was one of the reasons for the initial settlement of the United States.
Thus, it is ironic that many people throughout U.S. history have been denied their civil rights because of their status as members of a religious minority.
316
When did anti-Catholicism became a common feature of American life
Beginning in the early nineteenth century with the immigration of large numbers of Irish Catholics to the United States,
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How did the US treat Catholic immigrants
Catholic immigrants were denied jobs, and in the 1830s and 1840s anti-Catholic literature accused Catholic priests and nuns of committing horrific acts.
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members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints were accused of what?
kidnapping women and building armies for the purpose of dominating their neighbors.
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How did Jewish Americans face discrimination?
For many years, Jewish Americans faced discrimination in employment, education, and housing based on their religion.
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most frequent targets of hate crimes motivated by religious bias.
According to the FBI, Jewish people or property are the most frequent targets of hate crimes motivated by religious bias.
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Some religions that have faced discrimination:
- Catholicism
- Judaism
- Mormons
- Muslims
