Week Twelve - Qualitative Methods Flashcards
CRITICISMS OF QUANTITATIVE METHOD
- It can be quite artificial
- It can over-simplify why may be complex phenomena
- It can be of limited use for some topics - for logistical or ethical reasons it may not always be possible to study a topic in an experimental way
What is the emphasis in qualitative research?
The emphasis is on drawing theory from data, rather than testing theory with data.
What does qualitative research aim to understand?
It aims to understand the individual’s experience of the world and how they construct that view.
What are the 4 quality factors in qualitative research? What do they each mean?
Dependability
The knowledge from the research is obtained in a rigorous and systematic way.
Auditable
The research process has been recorded in detail
Transferable
The extent to which the research findings can be transferred to other findings and groups
Idiographic
Findings have an intrinsic worth even if they are not transferable
What are some ways of collecting data?
Interviews Focus groups Participant observation Newspapers, films, websites Diaries, blogs and written accounts Social media sites such as Facebook or Twitter
What are two types of interviews?
structured and semi-structured interviews
Define characteristics of a structured interview
In a structured interview the researcher has a pre-set list of questions
This approach is often used in conjunction with set response options
Pros and Cons of structured interviews
Pros
Questions are prepared in advance and are therefore (hopefully) well formulated.
It is easier to compare responses among participants, particularly if set response options are used.
Cons
Questions are inflexible with no opportunity to follow-up on unexpected but interesting comments
Questions may not be applicable to every participant
define characteristics of semi-structured interviews.
Also known as qualitative interviews or in-depth interviews
In a semi-structured interview the researcher has an ‘interview schedule’, where they work with a list of questions but will also deviate from these questions if it is appropriate
One of the additional intentions of this is create a more conversational feel to the interview
Pros and Cons of semi-structured interviews
Pros
The participant is free to raise important issues that the researcher may not have anticipated, which in turn can provide richer information.
Cons
It becomes even more difficult to generalise the outcome of the research to different populations
It can be difficult to keep the interview on track
The researcher has to come up with questions on the spot.
What are the 3 forms of interview probes?
Detail oriented
Elaboration
Clarification
What is a Detail oriented probe?
Asking the participant for more detail, such when an event took place or where it happened
What is an Elaboration probe?
Using either a question or a gesture (e.g. head nodding) to encourage a participant to reveal more information about a topic, or to ask for an example.
What is a Clarification probe?
These are used when the interviewer has misunderstood something, and should always be phrased in terms of it being a mistake on the part of the researcher rather than the participant.
The 6 key steps in an interview structure?
Establish a rapport
Describe the purpose and nature of the interview
Conduct the interview
End the interview
Transcription
Analyse the data
What are some good interviewer attributes?
Familiarity with the topic
Clear and friendly manner of speaking with no use of jargon
Flexibility and willingness to change the direction of the interview if necessary (in a semi-structured interview)
Critical enough to challenge participants on what is being said and identifying inconsistencies in replies
What are focus groups?
When a researcher speaks to several participants at once
Who should do transcribing?
The interviewer
The lead researcher
The assistant
Advantages of the Jefferson system
Does not use special symbols so standard computer is adequate.
Allows the researcher to record not just what was said but how it was said
Jefferson Symbols
(0.2) = The length of a pause between words
(.) = A micropause – short but noticeable
::: = An extended sound, such as ‘Emmm’
[ ] = Two people speaking at the same time
= Two people overlapping slightly
> < = Speaking at a faster rate
_ = Emphasising a particular syllable
* = Higher pitch
ºwordº = Word is quietly spoken
(??) = Inaudible speech, sometimes shown as xxxx
What is the Thematic Analysis?
Thematic analysis is a method of analyzing qualitative data. It is usually applied to a set of texts, such as interview transcripts. The researcher closely examines the data to identify common themes – topics, ideas and patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly.
When is using thematic analysis useful?
There is no strong theoretical perspective to drive the analysis
The data consists of written transcripts or documents such as newspapers or blogs
The data is rich in the sense of containing a lot of detail and covering a lot of ground.
All various types of thematic analysis operate on the basis of what?
Identifying themes.
What is a theme?
A theme refers to a word or phrase which represents a pattern of issues raised across and within transcripts or focus groups or interviews, or written materials such as diaries.
Define Braun and Clarke’s model of stages of thematic analysis
Step 1 - Data Familiarisation Step 2 – Initial Coding Generation Step 3 – Searching for Themes Based on Initial Coding Step 4 – Review of Themes Step 5 – Theme Definition and Labelling Step 6 – Report Writing
Define stage 1 of thematic analysis
To start the researcher must become familiar with the data
Ideally this is done by writing the transcription, as this
gives the researcher the deepest understanding of the material.
If the researcher does not transcribe the data then they should at least read the transcript whilst listening to a recording of the interview.
Define stage 2 of thematic analysis
Going through each line of the transcript and adding a one or two word label that sums up what is being said in that line.
may be done for just what the participant says or it may also include what the interviewer says.
A very common mistake – at this stage you just label what is said, you do not try to interpret it, even if this means that sometimes when adding codes it feels like you are stating the obvious.
Define stage 3 of thematic analysis
As you work through the transcription you will start to see that certain codes are repeated and that some appear to be linked together
Define stage 4 of thematic analysis
need to make sure that your conclusions are justified – the themes need to be supported by codes and the codes need to be supported by evidence, specifically line numbers on the transcription.
Define stage 5 of thematic analysis
Once themes have been identified they need to be examined and clearly defined.
This involves identifying the word that is the most accurate description of a theme
Ensure that there is no overlap between themes, may identify sub themes
Define stage 6 of thematic analysis
In addition we have to be much more selective when presenting qualitative research. It would be infeasible to include full transcripts, so instead individual quotes will normally be used to illustrate the codes and themes identified.
Why is qualitative research treated with scepticism?
There will always be a temptation for the researcher to use quotes that support their own personal viewpoint
What are some strengths of thematic analysis? (5)
It is a MORE FLEXIBLE system that can be used with data from a variety of sources.
It is the MOST EASILY LEARNED system and therefore one that novice researchers often find it best to start with.
The outcome of the analysis can normally be understood by non-academics.
It can normally be EASILY UNDERSTOOD by members of the target population that the research was focussing on
It can be used to process LARGE AMOUNTS OF DATA than other types of qualitative analysis as it is a QUICKER and SIMPLER process (although keep in mind that ‘large’ is a relative term in qualitative analysis).
What are some limitations of thematic analysis? (3)
It can be difficult to distinguish between themes identified because of frequency and those identified for impact or importance.
There is a need for caution when interpreting – the more interpretation the analyst engages in, the further their analysis becomes removed from the speaker’s original words and meanings.
Codes which do not obviously contribute to a specific theme or codes which contradict other codes may be ignored or minimised.
What do we base the type of analysis we use (in qualitative research) on?
The choice is based on the nature of the study and the philosophical stance of the researcher
Why is Thematic analysis one of the simplest forms of qualitative analysis?
As is identifies themes in the text through the use of coding
What is a criticism of thematic analysis?
Lacks defines steps
Why has thematic analysis become increasingly popular?
The fact that it can be easily understood by the public
What is the emphasis on in focus groups?
In a focus group the emphasis is on the interaction between the individuals
