Week One - Introduction To Scientific Method & Research Process Flashcards
What is intuition?
Knowledge is gained without intellectual effort or sensory processing e.g., instinct, emotion
What are the 5 ways of ‘knowing?’
Intuition Authority Rationalish/Logic Empiricism Scientific Method
What is authority (regarding ways of knowing)?
Knowledge is acquired through acceptance of ideas from respected figures e.g., parents, media
What does it mean to use rationalism/logic when knowing?
Knowledge is gained through application of logical rules e.g., premise stated
If premise or application of rules is wrong, conclusion will be invalid
How is knowledge acquired through empiricism?
Knowledge is acquired through observation and experience
- Senses limit what we can experience, and are open to
deception and illusion
How is knowledge gained through the scientific method?
Knowledge is developed through systematic empiricism
- Data is systematically collected and evaluated
What are the 3 features of science?
Systematic empiricism
Empirical questions
Public knowledge
What are the 3 goals of science?
Describe: Observational research
Predict: Correlational research
Explain: Experimental research
What are the 2 types of research?
Basic Research
Applied Research
What is the aim of Basic Research
Aim is to increase understanding of phenomena
What is the aim of Applied Research
Aim is to find solutions to practical problems
What are the 5 steps of the Scientific Process?
Generate a question
Develop procedures
Make empirical observations
Rationally interpret the observations (inference = deriving conclusions from observed facts or other ideas)
Use interpretations to predict other events
Describe Deductive Reasoning
General - Specific
Theory - Predictions
If the premises are true (valid) then the conclusion is valid
E.G., All humans are mortal. Erica is human, therefore Erica is mortal
Describe Inductive Reasoning
Specific - General
Something is true in a specific case, therefore it is assumed to apply in more general cases as well.
E.G., The crows in that flock are all black, therefore all crows are black.
What is a Theory?
A coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena.
Theories enable what form of logical reasoning?
Deductive reasoning (hypotheses)
What are constructs? What do they do/what is their purpose?
A construct is the idea that a phenomena might not literally exist, therefore it is merely just a construct.
Constructs observe and measure what is believed to be related to the phenomenon of interest.
What are the 4 key points that make a good theory?
Parsimony
Testability
Functional
Valid
What is meant by Parsimony? (in relation to a theory)
A theory is no more complex than it needs to be to explain behaviour.
What is meant by Testability? (in relation to a theory)
A good theory must be able to make predictions that are open to empirical refutation.
What is meant by Functional? (in relation to a theory)
A good theory explains how variables relate to one another.
What is meant by Valid? (in relation to a theory)
Must make specific, testable predictions that are confirmed by observation.
What are the 7 phases of research?
Idea Generating Phase Problem Definition Phase Procedures Design Phase Observation Phase (doing research) Data-Analysis Phase (statistics) Interpretation Phase Communication Phase
Explain the key processes of the Idea Generating Phase.
Read literature in an area of interest
Deduce hypothesis from existing theory
Apply existing theory to new phenomenon
Explain the key processes of the Problem Definition Phase.
How have others conceptualised, measured and tested related ideas
Develop testable hypotheses from
- Previous research
- Own ideas and speculations
Explain the key processes of the Procedures Design Phase.
What are the variables?
What will be measured?
How will data be recorded?
What will be manipulated?
How will data be analysed?
Who will be tested (ethics)
Explain the key processes of the Observation Phase (doing research).
Research is actually conducted
Might begin with a pilot study
- Results might lead to reconceptualisation of hypotheses
- Could result in changes to procedures
Explain the key processes of the Data-Analysis Phase (statistics).
Apply statistical methods that were identified in design phase
This is the classical and somewhat ‘stuffy’ approach to research
Explain the key processes of the Interpretation Phase.
Inductive process
Data inform the following
- What answer is provided in relation to the hypothesis?
- How do the data contribute to existing knowledge?
Explain the key processes of the Communication Phase.
- Public
- Presentation at scientific meetings
- Publication of research in peer reviewed journals
What are the 5 main types of Research Designs?
Naturalistic Observation Case Study Relational Research Differential Research Experimental Research
Describe Naturalistic Observational Research.
Advantages/Limitations?
In-depth observation of phenomenon in its natural setting
Advantages
- Major benefit is that findings have clear application outside the laboratory since observations are made in the ‘real world’
Disadvantages
- Awareness of being observed may affect behaviour
- Generalisability
(can the findings obtained by observing one group be applied to other, unobserved groups (external validity)) - Bias
(researcher expectations can affect what they look for)
Describe Case Study Research.
Advantages/Limitations?
In-depth observation of one person or small group
Advantages/Useful when
- Phenomenon of interest is not well understood, or difficult to produce experimentally
- Phenomenon is rare (e.g., H.M., split-brain)
- Qualitative research often relies on case studies
- Useful in early development of theories which can then
be subsequently tested
Limitations
- May not be representative of larger population (conclusions will lack external validity)
- Subject to researcher bias
Describe Relational Research.
Advantages/Limitations?
Attempts to determine the degree to which two or more variables are related.
E.G., Early studies that established links between early life experiences, SES, parental background and occupations with children’s later intelligence and success at school
In medical science sometimes referred to as epidemiological studies
LIMITATIONS
Cannot be used to establish cause and effect because:
- Lack of control means direction of causation is ambiguous
- Causation might be due to a third (lurking) variable
- How the data are collected is the issue with relational research.
Describe Differential Research.
Advantages/Limitations?
Compares two or more groups of participants on some variable
ADVANTAGES
- Groups are pre-existing and not under the researchers’ control
- High constraint research
LIMITATIONS
Missing component in quasi experimental research is the random assignment of participants to the treatment conditions
- means that we can never rule out alternative explanations for the effect that is observed (measured).
Describe Experimental Research.
Advantages/Limitations?
Participants are randomly assigned to groups/conditions
ADVANTAGES
- Researchers are able to have strict control over all aspects of the study
- Highest level of constraint
LIMITATIONS
- High constraint means little flexibility
- Experimental conditions may not translate well to ‘real-world’ settings
