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ANAP 500 - Physiology 1 - Lancaster > week one > Flashcards

week one Flashcards

0
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death - normal

An example being in embryology, many cells must die off to be replaced by other cells so the embryo can form correctly

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1
Q

75-100 __ cells in human body

A

trillion

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2
Q

cell necrosis

A

not normal - trauma, inflammation, infection, prolonged ischemia, etc.

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3
Q

intracellular water concentration

A

70-85%

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4
Q

intracellular CATIONS

A

POTASSIUM, magnesium, calcium, sodium

All metals with positive charges

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5
Q

Intracellular ANIONS

A

PHOSPHATE (inorganic), bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate

All basic and negative charges

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6
Q

proteins make up __ to __ % of the cell and have two types

A

10-20%

structural (provides support, cytoskeleton) and globular (many are enzymes)

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7
Q

lipids make up _ to _ % of the cell, three kinds

A

2-95%

phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides

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8
Q

carbohydrates that compose cells (percentage varies considerably)

A

glucose (basically the only energy source neurons can use) and glycogen (storage form for glucose)

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9
Q

What’s a phospholipid?

A

phosphate head (polar and hydrophylic) and two lipid / fatty acid tails (nonpolar and hydrophobic, positive and negative charges equally distributed)

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10
Q

the phosphate heads in the phospholipid bilayer face toward or away from water?

A

toward- hydrophilic water loving

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11
Q

integral or intrinsic proteins

A

go ALL THE WAY through the cell membrane, might be a membrane channel or pore, transport protein (transport selected solutes like sodium, potassium, etc), receptor proteins, or a cell marker to differentiate between self and non-self cells

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12
Q

peripheral proteins

A

only go part way through the cell membrane, many are enzymes, often attached to and regulate intrinsic proteins or carry out messages as directed by intrinsic proteins

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13
Q

should your immune system mount an immune response against non-self markers like viruses, bacteria, transplanted organs, etc.?

A

yes, non-self markers should create an immune response

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14
Q

glycocalyx provides __ support to the cell

A

external

common for one glycocalyx to attach to glycocalyx of surrounding cell membranes

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15
Q

the nucleus include five things -

A

nuclear envelope, nucleolus, nuclear pore, nucleoplasm, chromatin

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16
Q

a cell without a nucleus cannot synthesize protein and cannot reproduce itself, give an example

A

a mature red blood cell

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17
Q

nuclear envelope

A

phospholipid membrane that surrounds the nucleus, like a mini cell within the cell

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18
Q

nuclear pores

A

regulate what can move in and out of nucleus

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19
Q

nucleoplasm

A

like cytoplasm for the nucleus

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20
Q

no membrane that surrounds nucleolus

A

It is an aggregation of material in the center of the nucleus, composed of DNA and other types of chromatid material
DNA cannot leave the nucleus

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21
Q

endoplasmic reticulum is an extension of the

A

nuclear envelope

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22
Q

endoplasmic reticulum WITH ATTACHED RIBOSOMES

A

rough endoplasmic reticulum

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23
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

A

no attached ribosomes

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24
Q

ribosomes are sites of _

A

sites of protein synthesis

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25
Q

Golgi apparatus prominent in cells that _

A

secrete something like hormones etc, most prominent on side of cell from which substance is secreted. Endocrine glands, etc

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26
Q

how are ribosomes formed?

A

1- ribosomal proteins pass from cytoplasm in through nuclear pores to nucleolus
2- then large and small ribosomal subunits are formed in the nucleolus
3- in the process of making large and small subunits, (ribosomal ribonucleic acid) rRNA is incorporated into the subunits
4- the large and small subunits are then pushed back out through nuclear pores into the cytoplasm where large and small subunits converge to form the complete ribosome

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27
Q

the function of the rRNA as part of the ribosome- the symphony conductor

A

direct the overall process by which the ribosome synthesizes proteins but
DOES NOT CODE FOR synthesis of SPECIFIC protein

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28
Q

large ribosomal subunits designated __ s
small ribosomal subunits designated __ s
complete ribosome __ s
in humans - why does it matter?

A

60s
40s
80s
antibiotics developed for the size of ribosome, thus effective against bacteria but not human cells

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29
Q

how does A ribosome synthesize A protein?

A

1- since DNA can’t leave the nucleus, it undergoes transcription to code a strand of mRNA
2- the mRNA leaves the nucleus through a pore and enters the cytoplasm
3- Then the mRNA binds with a ribosome in the cytoplasm. Any ribosome can make any protein, rRNA directs the process, mRNA tells the ribosome which protein to make
4- Then a combination of the 20 amino acids necessary for protein synthesis in humans are arranged in the correct sequence by “transfer” tRNA
5- the triplets on tRNA and mRNA line up and the amino acids are formed into a chain.
6- A peptide bond holds the amino acids together.
7- the amino acid chain / finished protein breaks off from the mRNA and is available for use in the cell

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30
Q

error that can occur in making mRNA-
Transcription error

Error that can occur in making protein-
Translation error

A

transcription errors- when you don’t copy the recipe correctly = bad mRNA
translation errors- when you don’t read the transcribed recipe correctly
- incorrect amino acid pool (catabolic, negative nitrogen patients, trauma, burn, septic
- when you don’t have the right ingredients

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31
Q

the rough endoplasmic reticulum creates a __ for protein extrusion from the cell by a process called __ via the __

A

vesicle, exocytosis, Golgi apparatus

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32
Q

smooth endoplasmic reticulum functions - 4

A

1- glucose to glycogen (glyco-genesis)
2- glycogen to glucose (glycogen-o-lysis)
3- synthesis of lipids - phospholipids and cholesterol
4- detoxification of drugs and other toxins
Make glucose, make “glycose”, make fat, make bad drugs good.

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33
Q

Name some examples of phagocytic cells that would have many active lysosomes

A

neutrophils, macrophages

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34
Q

how does phagocytosis work?

A

1- vesicle forms at cell membrane going in (endocytosis)
2- fusion of vesicle and lysosome (from Golgi apparatus) creates phagolysosome
3- hydrolytic enzymes break organic substances down into their component parts = break proteins down to amino acids or short peptide chains = phagocytosis = destroyed or inactivated bacteria, etc.

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35
Q

peroxisomes contain an enzyme that synthesize hydrogen peroxide h202. What does h202 do?

A

detoxifies alcohol, many drugs, etc.
But… h2o2 lethal to cells if it accumulates - so another enzyme called peroxidase inactivates h202 very quickly

“When you imbibe alcohol, every cell in your body becomes inebriated”- Dr Lancaster

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36
Q

h2o2 enzymatically deactivated by

A

Peroxidase

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37
Q

reactive oxygen species = toxic oxygen radicals = free radicals,
anytime tissue has been ischemic and then is reperfused with lots of oxygen, coronary reperfusion, stents, bypass, transplants, hyperbaric oxygen, stunned myocardial syndrome

A 
hydrogen peroxide (h2o2)
superoxide (o2-)
hydroxyl radicals (oh)
hypochlorous acid (similar to household bleach)
NITRIC oxide (no), NOT NITROUS (no2)
others
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38
Q

toxic oxygen scavengers = antioxidants

A 
vit E
vit C
beta carotene (precursor of vit A)
flav-O-noids in dark chocolate, pomegranate, cranberries, blueberries, acai berry, red wine, green and black tea
others
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39
Q

mitochondria are sites of __ synthesis,
they can reproduce themselves if there is a need for more energy/ATP because
they have their own DNA called __

A

ATP

mitochondrial DNA

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40
Q

crista are found inside the __ and significantly increase the surface area (something something) electron receptors and hydrogen ion pumps

A

mitochondrion

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41
Q

ATP- nitrogenous base plus ribose sugar plus __ phosphate groups attached by high energy phosphate bonds which can be broken for __ calories
RIGHT NOW! Or break a low energy bond for __ calories

A

three
12,000 calories
7500 calories

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42
Q

adenosine is a profound ___, but in the kidneys it is a __

A

vasodilator, vasoconstrictor
Why is it a vasodilator? Because if cells are breaking ATP down all the way to adenosine for energy, they must need more nutrients and oxygen, so adenosine opens up the vasculature to more blood flow to provide that

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43
Q

calorie with a small “c”

A

amount of heat energy required to raise 1 gram of water 1* C (14-15* centigrade)

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44
Q

Calorie of kilocalorie = 1000 calories

A

amount of heat energy required to raise 1000 gram of water 1* C (14-15* centigrade)

45
Q

ATP = 2 high energy phosphate bonds, each bond provides __ calories (__ Kcal)

A

12,000 calories, or 12 Kcal

46
Q

under ANAEROBIC metabolism, what is the net yield of ATP for each molecule of glucose that enters the cell? what else is produced ?

A

Net 2 atp, plus the two molecules of pyruvic acid are enzymatically reduced to two molecules of lactic acid/lactate TEST QUESTION

47
Q

red blood cells use only __ metabolism because they don’t have mitochondria, the reason being their job is to transport oxygen to other areas of the body so if they used the oxygen they were supposed to be transporting none would be left for your big toe

A

anaerobic

48
Q

aerobic pathway (plus the net two ATP from glycolysis) yields gross __ and net __ ATP, plus 6 water molecules and 6 carbon dioxide molecules

A

40

38

49
Q

Excess glucose-6-phosphate –> glycogen

A

glyco-genesis

50
Q

glycogen —> glucose-6-phosphate

A

glycogen-o-lysis

51
Q

hydrogen ATOMS are electrically neutral, same number of __ in orbit as __ in the nucleus

A

electrons, protons

52
Q

when something loses electrons, it loses __

A

energy

53
Q

oxygen serves as the __ electron acceptor, forming water as a byproduct

A

final

54
Q

Protoplasm is an old term for the living contents inside the cell membrane and is composed of five substances, what are they?

A 
Water
Electrolytes
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
55
Q

What is the function of intracellular water?

A

Medium for substances to be dissolved or suspended and for chemical reactions

56
Q

Why do cells need so much inorganic phosphate?

A

Because it’s one of the main components of ATP adenosine TRI PHOSPHATE

57
Q

Enzymes catalyze a chemical reaction without the enzyme itself being _ by the reaction

A

Changed

58
Q

Triglycerides provide a major source of _ to many types of cells

A

Energy

59
Q

Excess glucose is synthesized into _ via glyco-geneis

A

Glycogen

60
Q

What organ is a major source of glycogen storage?

A

The liver

61
Q

Cell membrane is synonymous with __ __

A

Plasma membrane

62
Q

What are the extracellular compartments?

A

Interstitial, plasma, peritoneal, pericardial, CSF, synovial fluid in joints,

63
Q

Carbohydrate chains attached to integral proteins compose a unit called __

A

Glycoproteins, usually cell membrane bound receptors, act like an antenna to receive messages from hormones, neurotransmitters, etc

64
Q

Carbohydrate chains attached to fatty acid tails in the phospholipid bilayer compose a unit called __

A

Glycolipids

65
Q

Is cholesterol an important part of the cell membrane?

A

Yes, it provides support

66
Q

Protein channels are very __ about what they will or won’t allow into and out of the cell

A

Selective

67
Q

Cells are supported on the outside by the __ and on the inside by the __

A

Glycocalyx outside

Cytoskeleton inside

68
Q

Glycocalyx is a combination of glycoproteins and glycolipids

A

External support

69
Q

Cells may or may not have certain organelles depending on

A

The function of the cell

70
Q

Most cells have a __ nucleus

A

Single

71
Q

Some cells are multi-nucleated, an example is

A

Large skeletal muscle fibers

72
Q

Ribosomes not attached to endoplasmic reticulum are referred to as __ ribosomes

A

Free

73
Q

It is believed that any ribosome can synthesize __ protein

A

any

74
Q

The common name for DNA is __

A

gene

75
Q

Each DNA strand codes for the synthesis of a specific __

A

Protein

76
Q

Since DNA cannot leave the nucleus, it undergoes __ to form messenger ribonucleic acid mRNA

A

Transcription

77
Q

tRNA is formed in the

A

nucleus

78
Q

tRNA has two ends, one serves as the binding site for one of the 20 __ __. Thus each specific __ __ has a specific tRNA

A

Amino acids

Amino acid

79
Q

The other end of tRNA has a triplet binding site, which matches the binding site on the __ strand

A

mRNA

80
Q

MOST OF THE TIME, free ribosomes make proteins that will be used by that same cell

A

Most of the time

81
Q

Proteins made by the ribosomes attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum are often extruded to be used by other cells in the body through a process called exocytosis

A

Exo - out
Cyto- cell
Out of the cell

82
Q

Lysosomes are organelles that contain __ enzymes, enzymes are proteins

A

hydrolytic

83
Q

What are three outcomes of proteins formed by rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

1- stay intracellular, called lysosome
2- incorporate into cell membrane
3- undergo exocytosis, go extra-cellular

84
Q

Hepatic enzyme cytochrome p-450 metabolizes ___

A

Many many many many types of drugs

85
Q

Endocytosis vs phagocytosis

A

Vesicle forming and coming into cell vs. said vesicle binding with lysosome and hydrolyzing proteins

86
Q

The number of mitochondria in the cell depends on the workload that cell has to do

A

More work = more mitochondria = more ATP = more energy

87
Q

Mitochondrial DNA is much more simple than regular DNA, it’s sole purpose is to reproduce __

A

mitochondria

88
Q

Adenosine is composed of a __ base and a __ carbon sugar called __

A

Adenine or nitrogenous
Five carbon
Ribose

89
Q

Suppose the adenosine were replaced with a guanosine to make GTP instead of ATP

A

They’re just about the same thing and serve the same purpose

90
Q

Do not confuse AMP (adenosine monophosphate) with cAMP (CYCLIC adenosine monophosphate)

A

Ok

91
Q

ATP can be made from three things, what are they?

A

Glucose,
Fatty acids
Amino acids

92
Q

If 4 ATP are formed and 2 are used up to get glycolysis started, what is the NET ATP yield of glycolysis?

A

2 ATP
4-2=2

Also makes 2 molecules pyruvic acid

93
Q

Aerobic metabolism takes place inside the __. It starts with two molecules of __ __

A

Mitochondrion

Pyruvic acid that have been converted to 2 molecules of acetyl coA

94
Q

What are the two processes in aerobic metabolism?

A

The Citric acid cycle (AKA Krebs cycle) and the electron transport chain

95
Q

What is the byproduct of anaerobic metabolism?

A

Lactic acid AKA lactate

96
Q

What is the byproduct of aerobic metabolism?

A

Carbon dioxide and water

97
Q

Each acetyl coA turns the Krebs cycle _ turn

Each turn of the Krebs cycle makes _ ATP

Since there are TWO acetyl coA the net ATP gain from them going through the Krebs cycle is _ ATP and co2 is a byproduct.

A

One
One
Two

98
Q

VERY IMPORTANTLY- the Krebs cycle makes __ ions available to the electron transport system

A

hydrogen

99
Q

The electron transport chain BY ITSELF makes __ ATP, and water as a byproduct, if you started way back when with one molecule of glucose. (Fatty acids and amino acids will give you more or less acetyl coA and thus more or less hydrogen for the electron transport chain.)

A

34

100
Q

The number of acetyl-coA produced by beta oxidation depends on the number of carbons in the fatty acid chain

A

Ok

101
Q

Cations are electrically __ because they have lost an electron

A

Positive

102
Q

When something gains electrons it gains __

A

Energy

103
Q

Structure 1: __ donates __ electrons to Structure 1 which uses those electrons to pump one H+ to the outer matrix. The now NAD+ remains in the inner matrix, and the __ electrons are donated to Structure 3

A

NADH
2
2

104
Q

Structure 2: FADH2 donates __ electrons to Structure 2 (who sends them to Structure 3 who sends them to Structure 4), and __ protons to the inner matrix, one each of which is pumped through to the outer matrix by Structures 3 and 4, respectively. Structure 2 pumps _ protons, only forwards electrons on.

A

2
2
No

105
Q

Structures 1, 3, and 4 each pump _ proton from inner to outer matrix. Structure 2 pumps _ protons.

A

1

zero

106
Q

Three gradients that make hydrogen ions want to cross back to the inner matrix

A

Electrical gradient
pH gradient
Concentration gradent

107
Q

When hydrogen ions flow with the gradients from outer to inner matrix, they flow through very specialized channels that steal their energy and combine it with plain old inorganic phosphate to make __

A

HIGH ENERGY PHOSPHATE!!!

Which you add to AMP to make ADP (or ADP to make ATP) which then leaves the mitochondrial matrix and goes into the cytoplasm and can be used for whatever the cell needs energy for.

108
Q

What must Structure 4 do with its used electrons in order for NEW electrons to enter the system?

A

Add them to hydrogen ions to make hydrogen atoms plus oxygen equals water. If you don’t have oxygen you can’t make water, Structure 4 can’t release its used electrons, and the whole cycle backs up.

109
Q

Two organelles where toxic oxygen species are formed

A 
Peroxisomes
Mitochondria (lots of excess oxygen and electrically charged particles)

ANAP 500 - Physiology 1 - Lancaster (4 decks)

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