week one Flashcards
0
Q
apoptosis
A
programmed cell death - normal
An example being in embryology, many cells must die off to be replaced by other cells so the embryo can form correctly
1
Q
75-100 __ cells in human body
A
trillion
2
Q
cell necrosis
A
not normal - trauma, inflammation, infection, prolonged ischemia, etc.
3
Q
intracellular water concentration
A
70-85%
4
Q
intracellular CATIONS
A
POTASSIUM, magnesium, calcium, sodium
All metals with positive charges
5
Q
Intracellular ANIONS
A
PHOSPHATE (inorganic), bicarbonate, chloride, sulfate
All basic and negative charges
6
Q
proteins make up __ to __ % of the cell and have two types
A
10-20%
structural (provides support, cytoskeleton) and globular (many are enzymes)
7
Q
lipids make up _ to _ % of the cell, three kinds
A
2-95%
phospholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides
8
Q
carbohydrates that compose cells (percentage varies considerably)
A
glucose (basically the only energy source neurons can use) and glycogen (storage form for glucose)
9
Q
What’s a phospholipid?
A
phosphate head (polar and hydrophylic) and two lipid / fatty acid tails (nonpolar and hydrophobic, positive and negative charges equally distributed)
10
Q
the phosphate heads in the phospholipid bilayer face toward or away from water?
A
toward- hydrophilic water loving
11
Q
integral or intrinsic proteins
A
go ALL THE WAY through the cell membrane, might be a membrane channel or pore, transport protein (transport selected solutes like sodium, potassium, etc), receptor proteins, or a cell marker to differentiate between self and non-self cells
12
Q
peripheral proteins
A
only go part way through the cell membrane, many are enzymes, often attached to and regulate intrinsic proteins or carry out messages as directed by intrinsic proteins
13
Q
should your immune system mount an immune response against non-self markers like viruses, bacteria, transplanted organs, etc.?
A
yes, non-self markers should create an immune response
14
Q
glycocalyx provides __ support to the cell
A
external
common for one glycocalyx to attach to glycocalyx of surrounding cell membranes
15
Q
the nucleus include five things -
A
nuclear envelope, nucleolus, nuclear pore, nucleoplasm, chromatin
16
Q
a cell without a nucleus cannot synthesize protein and cannot reproduce itself, give an example
A
a mature red blood cell
17
Q
nuclear envelope
A
phospholipid membrane that surrounds the nucleus, like a mini cell within the cell
18
Q
nuclear pores
A
regulate what can move in and out of nucleus
19
Q
nucleoplasm
A
like cytoplasm for the nucleus
20
Q
no membrane that surrounds nucleolus
A
It is an aggregation of material in the center of the nucleus, composed of DNA and other types of chromatid material
DNA cannot leave the nucleus
21
Q
endoplasmic reticulum is an extension of the
A
nuclear envelope
22
Q
endoplasmic reticulum WITH ATTACHED RIBOSOMES
A
rough endoplasmic reticulum
23
Q
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
A
no attached ribosomes
24
ribosomes are sites of _
sites of protein synthesis
25
Golgi apparatus prominent in cells that _
secrete something like hormones etc, most prominent on side of cell from which substance is secreted. Endocrine glands, etc
26
how are ribosomes formed?
1- ribosomal proteins pass from cytoplasm in through nuclear pores to nucleolus
2- then large and small ribosomal subunits are formed in the nucleolus
3- in the process of making large and small subunits, (ribosomal ribonucleic acid) rRNA is incorporated into the subunits
4- the large and small subunits are then pushed back out through nuclear pores into the cytoplasm where large and small subunits converge to form the complete ribosome
27
the function of the rRNA as part of the ribosome- the symphony conductor
direct the overall process by which the ribosome synthesizes proteins but
DOES NOT CODE FOR synthesis of SPECIFIC protein
28
large ribosomal subunits designated __ s
small ribosomal subunits designated __ s
complete ribosome __ s
in humans - why does it matter?
60s
40s
80s
antibiotics developed for the size of ribosome, thus effective against bacteria but not human cells
29
how does A ribosome synthesize A protein?
1- since DNA can't leave the nucleus, it undergoes transcription to code a strand of mRNA
2- the mRNA leaves the nucleus through a pore and enters the cytoplasm
3- Then the mRNA binds with a ribosome in the cytoplasm. Any ribosome can make any protein, rRNA directs the process, mRNA tells the ribosome which protein to make
4- Then a combination of the 20 amino acids necessary for protein synthesis in humans are arranged in the correct sequence by "transfer" tRNA
5- the triplets on tRNA and mRNA line up and the amino acids are formed into a chain.
6- A peptide bond holds the amino acids together.
7- the amino acid chain / finished protein breaks off from the mRNA and is available for use in the cell
30
error that can occur in making mRNA-
Transcription error
Error that can occur in making protein-
Translation error
transcription errors- when you don't copy the recipe correctly = bad mRNA
translation errors- when you don't read the transcribed recipe correctly
- incorrect amino acid pool (catabolic, negative nitrogen patients, trauma, burn, septic
- when you don't have the right ingredients
31
the rough endoplasmic reticulum creates a __ for protein extrusion from the cell by a process called __ via the __
vesicle, exocytosis, Golgi apparatus
32
smooth endoplasmic reticulum functions - 4
1- glucose to glycogen (glyco-genesis)
2- glycogen to glucose (glycogen-o-lysis)
3- synthesis of lipids - phospholipids and cholesterol
4- detoxification of drugs and other toxins
Make glucose, make "glycose", make fat, make bad drugs good.
33
Name some examples of phagocytic cells that would have many active lysosomes
neutrophils, macrophages
34
how does phagocytosis work?
1- vesicle forms at cell membrane going in (endocytosis)
2- fusion of vesicle and lysosome (from Golgi apparatus) creates phagolysosome
3- hydrolytic enzymes break organic substances down into their component parts = break proteins down to amino acids or short peptide chains = phagocytosis = destroyed or inactivated bacteria, etc.
35
peroxisomes contain an enzyme that synthesize hydrogen peroxide h202. What does h202 do?
detoxifies alcohol, many drugs, etc.
But... h2o2 lethal to cells if it accumulates - so another enzyme called peroxidase inactivates h202 very quickly
"When you imbibe alcohol, every cell in your body becomes inebriated"- Dr Lancaster
36
h2o2 enzymatically deactivated by
Peroxidase
37
reactive oxygen species = toxic oxygen radicals = free radicals,
anytime tissue has been ischemic and then is reperfused with lots of oxygen, coronary reperfusion, stents, bypass, transplants, hyperbaric oxygen, stunned myocardial syndrome
```
hydrogen peroxide (h2o2)
superoxide (o2-)
hydroxyl radicals (oh)
hypochlorous acid (similar to household bleach)
NITRIC oxide (no), NOT NITROUS (no2)
others
```
38
toxic oxygen scavengers = antioxidants
```
vit E
vit C
beta carotene (precursor of vit A)
flav-O-noids in dark chocolate, pomegranate, cranberries, blueberries, acai berry, red wine, green and black tea
others
```
39
mitochondria are sites of __ synthesis,
they can reproduce themselves if there is a need for more energy/ATP because
they have their own DNA called __
ATP
| mitochondrial DNA
40
crista are found inside the __ and significantly increase the surface area (something something) electron receptors and hydrogen ion pumps
mitochondrion
41
ATP- nitrogenous base plus ribose sugar plus __ phosphate groups attached by high energy phosphate bonds which can be broken for __ calories
RIGHT NOW! Or break a low energy bond for __ calories
three
12,000 calories
7500 calories
42
adenosine is a profound ___, but in the kidneys it is a __
vasodilator, vasoconstrictor
Why is it a vasodilator? Because if cells are breaking ATP down all the way to adenosine for energy, they must need more nutrients and oxygen, so adenosine opens up the vasculature to more blood flow to provide that
43
calorie with a small "c"
amount of heat energy required to raise 1 gram of water 1* C (14-15* centigrade)
44
Calorie of kilocalorie = 1000 calories
amount of heat energy required to raise 1000 gram of water 1* C (14-15* centigrade)
45
ATP = 2 high energy phosphate bonds, each bond provides __ calories (__ Kcal)
12,000 calories, or 12 Kcal
46
under ANAEROBIC metabolism, what is the net yield of ATP for each molecule of glucose that enters the cell? what else is produced ?
Net 2 atp, plus the two molecules of pyruvic acid are enzymatically reduced to two molecules of lactic acid/lactate TEST QUESTION
47
red blood cells use only __ metabolism because they don't have mitochondria, the reason being their job is to transport oxygen to other areas of the body so if they used the oxygen they were supposed to be transporting none would be left for your big toe
anaerobic
48
aerobic pathway (plus the net two ATP from glycolysis) yields gross __ and net __ ATP, plus 6 water molecules and 6 carbon dioxide molecules
40
| 38
49
Excess glucose-6-phosphate --> glycogen
glyco-genesis
50
glycogen ---> glucose-6-phosphate
glycogen-o-lysis
51
hydrogen ATOMS are electrically neutral, same number of __ in orbit as __ in the nucleus
electrons, protons
52
when something loses electrons, it loses __
energy
53
oxygen serves as the __ electron acceptor, forming water as a byproduct
final
54
Protoplasm is an old term for the living contents inside the cell membrane and is composed of five substances, what are they?
```
Water
Electrolytes
Proteins
Lipids
Carbohydrates
```
55
What is the function of intracellular water?
Medium for substances to be dissolved or suspended and for chemical reactions
56
Why do cells need so much inorganic phosphate?
Because it's one of the main components of ATP adenosine TRI PHOSPHATE
57
Enzymes catalyze a chemical reaction without the enzyme itself being _ by the reaction
Changed
58
Triglycerides provide a major source of _ to many types of cells
Energy
59
Excess glucose is synthesized into _ via glyco-geneis
Glycogen
60
What organ is a major source of glycogen storage?
The liver
61
Cell membrane is synonymous with __ __
Plasma membrane
62
What are the extracellular compartments?
Interstitial, plasma, peritoneal, pericardial, CSF, synovial fluid in joints,
63
Carbohydrate chains attached to integral proteins compose a unit called __
Glycoproteins, usually cell membrane bound receptors, act like an antenna to receive messages from hormones, neurotransmitters, etc
64
Carbohydrate chains attached to fatty acid tails in the phospholipid bilayer compose a unit called __
Glycolipids
65
Is cholesterol an important part of the cell membrane?
Yes, it provides support
66
Protein channels are very __ about what they will or won't allow into and out of the cell
Selective
67
Cells are supported on the outside by the __ and on the inside by the __
Glycocalyx outside
| Cytoskeleton inside
68
Glycocalyx is a combination of glycoproteins and glycolipids
External support
69
Cells may or may not have certain organelles depending on
The function of the cell
70
Most cells have a __ nucleus
Single
71
Some cells are multi-nucleated, an example is
Large skeletal muscle fibers
72
Ribosomes not attached to endoplasmic reticulum are referred to as __ ribosomes
Free
73
It is believed that any ribosome can synthesize __ protein
any
74
The common name for DNA is __
gene
75
Each DNA strand codes for the synthesis of a specific __
Protein
76
Since DNA cannot leave the nucleus, it undergoes __ to form messenger ribonucleic acid mRNA
Transcription
77
tRNA is formed in the
nucleus
78
tRNA has two ends, one serves as the binding site for one of the 20 __ __. Thus each specific __ __ has a specific tRNA
Amino acids
| Amino acid
79
The other end of tRNA has a triplet binding site, which matches the binding site on the __ strand
mRNA
80
MOST OF THE TIME, free ribosomes make proteins that will be used by that same cell
Most of the time
81
Proteins made by the ribosomes attached to rough endoplasmic reticulum are often extruded to be used by other cells in the body through a process called exocytosis
Exo - out
Cyto- cell
Out of the cell
82
Lysosomes are organelles that contain __ enzymes, enzymes are proteins
hydrolytic
83
What are three outcomes of proteins formed by rough endoplasmic reticulum?
1- stay intracellular, called lysosome
2- incorporate into cell membrane
3- undergo exocytosis, go extra-cellular
84
Hepatic enzyme cytochrome p-450 metabolizes ___
Many many many many types of drugs
85
Endocytosis vs phagocytosis
Vesicle forming and coming into cell vs. said vesicle binding with lysosome and hydrolyzing proteins
86
The number of mitochondria in the cell depends on the workload that cell has to do
More work = more mitochondria = more ATP = more energy
87
Mitochondrial DNA is much more simple than regular DNA, it's sole purpose is to reproduce __
mitochondria
88
Adenosine is composed of a __ base and a __ carbon sugar called __
Adenine or nitrogenous
Five carbon
Ribose
89
Suppose the adenosine were replaced with a guanosine to make GTP instead of ATP
They're just about the same thing and serve the same purpose
90
Do not confuse AMP (adenosine monophosphate) with cAMP (CYCLIC adenosine monophosphate)
Ok
91
ATP can be made from three things, what are they?
Glucose,
Fatty acids
Amino acids
92
If 4 ATP are formed and 2 are used up to get glycolysis started, what is the NET ATP yield of glycolysis?
2 ATP
4-2=2
Also makes 2 molecules pyruvic acid
93
Aerobic metabolism takes place inside the __. It starts with two molecules of __ __
Mitochondrion
| Pyruvic acid that have been converted to 2 molecules of acetyl coA
94
What are the two processes in aerobic metabolism?
The Citric acid cycle (AKA Krebs cycle) and the electron transport chain
95
What is the byproduct of anaerobic metabolism?
Lactic acid AKA lactate
96
What is the byproduct of aerobic metabolism?
Carbon dioxide and water
97
Each acetyl coA turns the Krebs cycle _ turn
Each turn of the Krebs cycle makes _ ATP
Since there are TWO acetyl coA the net ATP gain from them going through the Krebs cycle is _ ATP and co2 is a byproduct.
One
One
Two
98
VERY IMPORTANTLY- the Krebs cycle makes __ ions available to the electron transport system
hydrogen
99
The electron transport chain BY ITSELF makes __ ATP, and water as a byproduct, if you started way back when with one molecule of glucose. (Fatty acids and amino acids will give you more or less acetyl coA and thus more or less hydrogen for the electron transport chain.)
34
100
The number of acetyl-coA produced by beta oxidation depends on the number of carbons in the fatty acid chain
Ok
101
Cations are electrically __ because they have lost an electron
Positive
102
When something gains electrons it gains __
Energy
103
Structure 1: __ donates __ electrons to Structure 1 which uses those electrons to pump one H+ to the outer matrix. The now NAD+ remains in the inner matrix, and the __ electrons are donated to Structure 3
NADH
2
2
104
Structure 2: FADH2 donates __ electrons to Structure 2 (who sends them to Structure 3 who sends them to Structure 4), and __ protons to the inner matrix, one each of which is pumped through to the outer matrix by Structures 3 and 4, respectively. Structure 2 pumps _ protons, only forwards electrons on.
2
2
No
105
Structures 1, 3, and 4 each pump _ proton from inner to outer matrix. Structure 2 pumps _ protons.
1
| zero
106
Three gradients that make hydrogen ions want to cross back to the inner matrix
Electrical gradient
pH gradient
Concentration gradent
107
When hydrogen ions flow with the gradients from outer to inner matrix, they flow through very specialized channels that steal their energy and combine it with plain old inorganic phosphate to make __
HIGH ENERGY PHOSPHATE!*!*!
Which you add to AMP to make ADP (or ADP to make ATP) which then leaves the mitochondrial matrix and goes into the cytoplasm and can be used for whatever the cell needs energy for.
108
What must Structure 4 do with its used electrons in order for NEW electrons to enter the system?
Add them to hydrogen ions to make hydrogen atoms plus oxygen equals water. If you don't have oxygen you can't make water, Structure 4 can't release its used electrons, and the whole cycle backs up.
109
Two organelles where toxic oxygen species are formed
```
Peroxisomes
Mitochondria (lots of excess oxygen and electrically charged particles)
```
