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Cognitive Part A > Week 9: Reading and Speech production > Flashcards

Week 9: Reading and Speech production Flashcards

1
Q

Defining language

A
  • A shared symbolic system for communication.
    • Linguistics: – The discipline that takes language as its topic.
  • Psycholinguistics: – The study of language as it is used and learned by people.
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2
Q

Reading vs Speech perception

A
  • Understand sentence in same way whether we read text or listen to someone talking.
  • However, crucial differences…
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3
Q

Reading

A
  • words seen as a whole
  • low ambiguity
  • rarely distracted by other stimuli
  • low cognitive demands
  • punctuation the main cue

(involve different brain areas)

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4
Q

Speech perception

A
  • words spread-out over time
  • high ambiguity
  • adverse conditions in everyday life
  • high cognitive demands
  • prosodic cues (how someone uses their voice)
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5
Q

Reading processing

A

ORTHOGRAPHY

PHONOLOGY

SEMANTICS

SYNTAX AND GRAMMAR

HIGHER LEVEL DISCOURSE INTEGRATION

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6
Q

Orthography

A

Word spelling

Grapheme is a letter, makes up orthography

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7
Q

Phonology

A

Word sound

Phonemes are the smallest unit of a sound

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8
Q

Semantics

A

Word meaning

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9
Q

Syntax and grammar

A

Structure

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10
Q

Higher-level discourse integration

A

(Balota et al., 1999)

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11
Q

Research methods for reading

A
  • naming task
  • lexical decision task
  • prime words task
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12
Q

Naming task

A

Say printed word out loud as fast as possible

(Links orthography, spelling, and phonology, sound)

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13
Q

Lexical decision task

A

Decide rapidly whether a string of letters forms a word

(Links orthography with semantics)

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14
Q

Prime words task

A

Does a word presented before a target word effect processing of the target?

If prime word related to target in spelling, sound or meaning, effects processing of target
e.g. Klip then Clip = faster processing
Tint then Pint = slower processing

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15
Q

Limitation to testing reading

A

Majority of studies consider English language when exploring Language Difficulties.

ANGLOSCENTICITIES - Explore relationship between spelling (orthography) and sound (phonology) inconsistent (in English language) (e.g. the, was)
– English children learn to read more slowly than children learning a more consistent language (Caravolas et al., 2013)

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16
Q

Reading: Phonological processing

A

Do we access sounds when reading words?

  1. Weak phonological model – Phonological processing is inessential for word identification - don’t process sounds to read
  2. Strong phonological model – Phonological processing central for word identification
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17
Q

evidence consistent with STRONG model:

A
  • homophones
  • phonological neighbours
  • phonological priming
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18
Q

Homophones

A

Words with one pronunciation, but two spellings

e.g. Rose and Rows

Rows: is it a flower? (Van Orden)
More errors when the word was a homophone of the real word
- errors suggested engagement in phonological processesing

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19
Q

Phonological neighbours

A

Words that differ by one phoneme

Gait –> Bait, Get

– When reading a sentence, pps look at words with many neighbours for shorter amount of time
– Advantage suggests engaged in phonological processing  (Yates et al, 2008)
20
Q

Phonological priming

A

Words processed faster when prime is phonologically identical

Klip –> Clip
Parb –> Clip

– Advantage suggests engaged in phonological processing (Rastle & Brysbaert, 2006)
21
Q

Is phonological processing essential for word recognition?

A

Although the strong model has supporting evidence…

However, may not be essential for effective reading
– Brain damaged patients can have impaired phonological processing, but still understand meaning of words

22
Q

Interactive activation model of visual word processing (McClelland & Rumelhart, 1981)

A

Recognition units of words at three levels:
1. Feature level
2. Letter level
3. Word level

Involves parallel processing
- Bottom-up and top-down processes interact

23
Q

Interactive activation model can account for the following:

A
  • word superiority effect
  • orthographic neighbours
24
Q

Word superiority effect

A
  • Letter string presented briefly followed by mask
    • Decide which two letters were in a given position
    • Better and faster when letter string forms a real word
      e.g. dog rather than odg

non-words are slower

25
Q

Orthographic neighbours

A

Words formed by changing one letter (grapheme) in target word

Stem –> seem, step, stew
– Neighbours facilitate target word recognition if they are less frequent (weakly activated) in language
– Neighbours inhibit target word recognition if they are more frequent (strongly activated) in language (Chen & Mirman, 2012)

(So basically the less orthographic neighbours a word has, the more it helps you recognise the word)

26
Q

Interactive activation model limitations

A
  • too much importance attached to letter order
  • should have problems reading the following if the letter order was essential (see sentence with letters mixed up)

Able to read test if the first and last letter is in the correct place, even if others are mixed.

27
Q

Semantic priming

A

Target word recognised faster if preceded by semantically related word

Two possible explanations:
1. Automatically activates related words due to learning
2. Expectation semantically related word will follow

e.g. nurse -> doctor
table -> chair

28
Q

Reading out loud (2 main models)

A
  • dual-route model
  • connectionist triangle model
29
Q

Dual-route model (Coltheart et al 2001)

A
  • Two routes between printed word and speech
  • GRAPHEME-PHONEME CONVERSION
  • LEXICON AND SEMANTIC KNOWLEDGE
  • Activation at one level cascades onto the next
30
Q

Route 1: Grapheme-phoneme conversion

A

– Convert spelling of a grapheme (small unit of written language) into a phoneme (basic unit of sound)
– Permits accurate perception of regular words (i.e. spelling and sound correspond)

– Does not permit perception of irregular words (i.e. spelling and sound do not correspond)
31
Q

Route 2: Lexicon and semantic knowledge

A

– Familiar words stored in ORTHOGRAPHIC INPUT LEXICON (a store of detailed word information)
– Printed word activates input lexicon, and extract meaning from semantic system.
– Sound pattern generated in PHONOLOGICAL OUTPUT LEXICON

32
Q

Reading aloud: Connectionist triangle model (Plaut at al, 1996)

A
  • Based on highly interactive system between orthography (spelling), phonology (sound) and semantics (meaning)
  • Semantics plays greater role in reading aloud than in dual-route model
33
Q

Dyslexia (3 types)

A

Surface dyslexia

Phonological dyslexia

Deep dyslexia

34
Q

Surface dyslexia

A

Difficulties reading irregular words

Dual route model: rely on grapheme-phoneme conversion

Connectionist triangle model: semantic deficit

(Only the first route to the dual route model can be used accurately in surface dyslexia)
(For the connectionist triangle model, they may not be able to identify words by meaning)

35
Q

Phonological dyslexia

A

Difficulties reading words and non-words

Dual route model: Problems with grapheme-phoneme conversion

Connectionist triangle model: general phonologcial deficit, not specific to reading

(In dual route model, struggle with converting letters into sound, so may rely on their lexicon/ semantics)
(For connectionist triangle model, it is a phonological deficit)

36
Q

Deep dyslexia

A

Difficulties reading words and non-words
- Semantic errors (e.g. seeing ship as boat)

Dual route model: Out of scope of model - can’t really explain deep dyslexia

Connectionist triangle model:
phonological deficit, not specific to reading

37
Q

Dyslexia summary:

A
  • Surface dyslexia – Dual route model – Connectionist triangle model
    ○ Semantic deficit for both
  • Phonological dyslexia
    – Dual route model
    ○ Grapheme-phoneme conversion
    – Connectionist triangle model
    ○ Phonological deficit
  • Deep dyslexia
    – Dual route model
    ○ Out of scope
    – Connectionist triangle model
    Phonological deficit
38
Q

Speech perception

A
  • words spread out over tie
  • high ambiguity
  • adverse conditions in everyday life
  • high cognitive demands
  • prosodic cues
39
Q

Stages of speech perception

A
  1. Select signal of interest from irrelevant inputs
    1. Extract (or decode) the elements of interest (e.g. phonemes) from the speech signal
    2. Word identification
    3. Comprehension and interpretation
      • Construct meaning and integrate to construct speaker’s intended message
40
Q

Listening to speech: Variability, adverse conditions decrease intelligibility

A

– Phonemes pronounced in different ways (e.g. accents, dialects, rate of speaking)

	– Energetic masking: target degraded in some way (e.g. several people talking at the same time)

	 – Informational masking: effect of cognitive load (e.g. completing multiple tasks)
41
Q

Hearing loss

A

Can make communication more difficult, especially when there is background noise

42
Q

Dealing with variability

A
  • Stress
    – Initial syllable of content words (nouns, verbs) typically stressed in English
    • Coarticulation
      – Pronunciation of phoneme depends on preceding and following phonemes (flow of speech, if the sound of one end of a word melds in to the start of the next word)
    • Sentence context
      – Information that is not provided in the auditory signal - brain can fill in gaps
43
Q

Sentence context

A
  • Information that is not provided in the auditory signal includes…
    – Information provided by previous input (e.g. earlier parts of a sentence)
    – Top-down information provided by knowledge and experience of language/words
  • Has a rapid influence on speech perception
44
Q

example of sentence context

A

Phonemic restoration effect

Listeners unaware that a phoneme has been removed and replaced by a non-speech sound (see sentence in notes)

  • Evidence that we use top-down expectations based on sentence context (Warren & Warren, 1970)
45
Q

Listening to speech: summary

A
  • Speech perception is a complex process that involves various stages
    • Must deal with considerable variability in signal
    • Use various cues to help us deal with variability
      – Stress
      – Coarticulation
      – Sentence context

Cognitive Part A (10 decks)

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