WEEK 9 - Flashcards
WEEK 9
Module 9: Imagery
Have you ever sat in bed the night before a big game, closed your eyes, and pictured yourself scoring the game-winning goal?
While athletes and performers have used different forms of mental practice for years, recently the focus has been on a specific type of mental practice: imagery.
As such, researchers and practitioners have begun to study the uses of imagery in sport and exercise settings.
Specifically, people in the field of sport and exercise psychology are interested in how imagery can impact performance and enjoyment in sport and exercise contexts.
In this module we will cover imagery, including its effectiveness and uses. You will also get a chance to experience a brief imagery activity and assess your use of imagery.
Defining Imagery
People use a variety of terms for mental practice, with the two most common being “imagery” and “visualization.”
While these terms refer to creating or recreating an experience in the mind it is important to explore them more thoroughly.
Visualization typically refers to the act of picturing something in your mind.
An athlete using visualization might picture herself making an important shot or executing a specific dive.
While visualization is an effective tool, it does have one shortcoming.
Most people do not experience the world solely through their visual sense.
Rather, the majority of people experience life through their visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, and olfactory senses.
Based on that, if the goal of mental practice is to create or recreate an experience that is as realistic as possible, it stands to reason that it should include all the senses.
Imagery does just that. Imagery is the creation or recreation of an experience in the mind using all of your senses.
Let’s look at the example of a tennis player using imagery before a match.
When picturing a successful return of serve, he would certainly use his visual sense to see his opponent serving the ball to him.
However, to make the experience more real, he would also use his kinesthetic sense to feel his body move into position to return the serve, his auditory sense to hear the sound of the ball hitting his racket, his tactile sense to feel the racket in his hands, and his olfactory sense to smell the familiar surroundings of his home court.
By using all of these senses, the player can create an experience that feels real.
Research on Imagery
There has been an extensive amount of research investigating the effectiveness of imagery. This research has led to several positive findings:
- Imagery is widely used by athletes, coaches, and sports psychology consultants (Murphy, Jowdy, & Durtschi, 1990)
- Athletes believe imagery has a positive impact on their performance (Murphy, Jowdy, & Durtschi, 1990)
- Imagery can increase confidence and the ability to cope with anxiety (Evans, Jones, & Mullen, 2004)
- When used with other psychological skills, imagery has a positive impact on performance in a variety of sports (Perry & Morris, 1995; Weinberg & Williams, 2001)
- Imagery is an effective tool for learning and performing motor skills (Feltz & Landers, 1983; Martin, Moritz, & Hall, 1999)
Taken together, the research on imagery suggests that it is an extremely effective tool for athletes and performers.
How Imagery Works
While the research on imagery highlights its effectiveness, there are still questions about how it exactly works.
How does simply picturing something (using all of your senses) improve performance?
Researchers have proposed five main theories to explain how imagery works.
Psychoneuromuscular Theory
The psychoneuromuscular theory suggests that imagery activates our muscles and brain in a similar way to actual physical movement.
In other words, when you imagine yourself performing a skill, your body activates the same muscles and areas of the brain that would be used if you were actually performing the skill.
While muscle and brain activation are at a significantly smaller magnitude during imagery, your body is still developing neural pathways and muscle memory.
Therefore, when you use imagery, you are actually training your body to perform.
While this may be difficult to understand, you have probably experienced this several times in your life.
Have you ever had a nightmare and woken up sweating, crying, or screaming?
Do you dream about sports and find yourself running or kicking in your sleep?
Why does this happen?
When you have a vivid dream, it seems so real that your body responds as if it is actually happening.
Your brain sends signals to your body to react accordingly.
The same thing can happen with imagery. When you create a lifelike experience, your body will respond the same.
Symbolic Learning Theory
The symbolic learning theory suggests that imagery allows athletes to develop a “mental blueprint” for their movement.
For example, a rock climber might imagine her route up a cliff and thus develop a plan for where to place her hands and feet at different times.
The symbolic learning theory also applies to athletes who mentally rehearse specific plays prior to a game.
A basketball player or quarterback who imagines different offensive plays would be employing the symbolic learning theory.
Bioinformational Theory
The bioinformational theory proposes that imagery helps athletes prepare for different stimuli by developing appropriate responses.
According to this theory, each image consists of a stimulus (e.g., the crowd) and response (e.g., taking a relaxing breath).
By imagining appropriate responses to various stimuli, athletes are better prepared for competition
Triple Code Model
The triple code model focuses on the importance of the meaning each image has for a specific person.
Proponents of this model believe that each person will experience an image differently and that experience is critical to the effectiveness of the image.
The triple code model focuses on the importance of three components of an image: the image itself, the somatic response a person has to the image, and the meaning of the image.
The belief is that each person will see the image differently, respond in a unique way to the image, and assign her own meaning to the image.
Ultimately, the triple code model stresses the importance of finding meaning in images to make them more effective.
Psychological Explanations
In addition to the theories discussed above, it is widely believed that imagery positively affects athletes’ psychological states.
Specifically, it is believed that imagery can lower arousal and increase confidence, focus, and motivation.
Using Imagery Effectively
It is clear that imagery is an effective tool for enhancing performance and enjoyment.
However, in order to experience the full effects of imagery, it is important to use it correctly.
Therefore, there are several guidelines you should follow when implementing imagery into your training routine.
Use vivid and controllable images:
- Vividness and controllability are keys to effective imagery.
- In order to make your images as real as possible, it is critical to make them as vivid as possible.
- You can do this by incorporating all of your senses into your image.
- Controllability is being able to manipulate your images to achieve the desired result.
- This may take time, but it is important to be able to control your images (you might think of it like watching a movie but holding a remote control so you can pause, rewind, fast forward, etc.).
Practice imagery:
- Imagery is a skill just like dribbling a basketball or hitting a softball.
- As such, it must be practiced.
- You will be able to improve the vividness and controllability of your images through practice.
- Try to make time each day to practice your imagery.
Use imagery in practice and competitions:
- Many people assume that imagery should just be used at home, but imagery should be used before, during, and after practice and competitions.
- Try to identify times when imagery might be beneficial to you (e.g., before a big shot, in the middle of a difficult exam, at the halftime of a game, during a time-out).
Utilize audio or video aids during imagery:
- If you are having trouble imagining yourself in action, try watching yourself on video for a few minutes.
- After you have that picture in your head, it may be easier to use imagery.
- Another tool that can help is an audio recording that takes you through the imagery session.
- Having someone (even your own voice) talk you through the imagery session can be very helpful.
Vividness and controllability are the keys to effective imagery.
MOD 9 Summary
Imagery is one of the most commonly used and effective mental skills.
What makes it even more appealing is how easy it can be to implement.
Imagery requires little or no equipment and can often be done in a very short period of time.
In this module we covered the keys to effective imagery as well as the explanations for why it works. When done correctly, imagery can be an extremely effective tool.
WEEK 10
MODULE 10 Group and Team Dynamics
In the 2003–2004 NBA season, the Los Angeles Lakers added future hall-of-fame players, Karl Malone and Gary Payton, to a team that already included superstars Shaquille O’Neal and Kobe Bryant.
Though they were universally considered the favourites to win the championship, they were defeated in the NBA finals rather easily by the Detroit Pistons.
While the Pistons did not have superstar players like the Lakers, their teamwork and cohesion led them to the title.
This is an example of how important teamwork can be, and that it can often trump talent.
The concept of teamwork is commonly discussed as a critical component of success in sports, business, and other performance settings.
The dynamics between players and coaches can often be the difference between success and failure.
Unfortunately, while many people place a considerable focus on talent and skill development, group and team dynamics are often overlooked.
In this module you will learn about group and team dynamics and their impact on performance.
We will discuss how teams develop and grow, and you will learn how to improve team dynamics and performance.
Defining Groups and Teams
When studying group and team dynamics, it is important to understand the definitions of those terms.
We have all been part of a group during our lifetime, but do we really know what constitutes a group?
Is a group simply two or more people in the same location?
Within social psychology, a group has been defined as two or more people who interact with, and exert mutual influence on, each other
When looking at this definition, it is easy to see that a group is more than just a few people in the same location; there must be some sort of interaction between people for them to be considered a group.
Within sport psychology, a group can be defined as a collection of individuals with common or shared objectives and interpersonal attraction.
For example, an exercise class would be considered a group because each member shares the objective of getting “in shape.”
Additionally, the members of the group typically like each other and enjoy their time together.
A group is a collection of individuals with common or shared objectives and interpersonal attraction.
When defining a team, it is helpful to consider it as a special type of group.
That is because teams have the same characteristics as groups (i.e., common or shared objectives and interpersonal attraction) as well as some additional criteria, including:
- Collective sense of identity: Teams identify themselves as “we” rather than “I.”
- Distinctive roles: Team members have specific jobs.
- Structured modes of communication: Teams have formal ways of communicating.
- Norms: Teams have common behaviours that guide members.
- Dependency/common fate: Team members are reliant upon each other to accomplish their goals.
While each of these characteristics can help us differentiate between a team and a group, the last one is the most critical.
Team members must interact with each other to accomplish their goals
For example, in the exercise class we discussed above, each member can accomplish his or her goal of getting in shape without the help of another person.
The same thing happens in a classroom where each student can earn an A without interacting with anyone else (unless there is a group project in the class).
However, on a team, members are dependent upon one another if they want to be successful.
Group Development
Groups and teams are constantly changing and evolving over time.
Some teams argue and struggle early on only to become highly functioning champions months later.
Other teams seem to connect and excel rather quickly.
To understand how groups and teams develop over time, several theories have been developed.
Linear Perspective
The Linear Model suggests that groups and teams progress through four distinct stages.
Each stage has its own characteristics and challenges, and a group must successfully deal with those challenges before moving to the next stage.
Tuckman’s model suggests that while most teams go through all four stages, they do so at their own pace and some may even get stuck at one stage.
The stages of the Linear Model include:
Forming:
- In this initial stage, members of a team are familiarizing themselves with their teammates, assessing each others’ strengths and weaknesses, and trying to identify their respective places on the team.
- During forming there is typically a feeling of excitement and optimism.
- An example of this stage would be a pre-season training camp for a football team.
- The players are getting to know each other and trying to identify their role with the team, and there is generally a feeling of excitement for the upcoming season.
Storming:
- The second stage of the model is characterized by resistance to the leader and interpersonal conflict.
- Infighting can occur during this stage as members are establishing their roles and statuses within the group.
- Using the football example from above, storming would be represented by fights during practice and players expressing disappointment with their assigned roles.
Norming:
- If teams are able to get through the storming stage, they move into norming, where conflicts are resolved and players start working together toward a common goal.
- In norming players put their personal needs aside and focus on what is best for the team.
- A football team may reach the norming stage as the season approaches and they all begin to work toward their common goal.
Performing:
- In the performing stage, team members put all their energy toward helping the team by working together to solve problems and identify ways to enhance their performance.
- Not all teams are able to reach the performing stage, but those that do typically perform well.
The Linear Model is the most widely used model of group development and can give us insight into group dynamics.
However, there are other theories of group development, which are also important to consider.
Group Structure and Effectiveness
All groups and teams hope to become highly functioning and successful.
In order to do that, it is important to understand group structure and the components necessary for group effectiveness.
This starts with understanding the concepts of roles and norms.
A role is a set of behaviours that is required or expected of a person.
Quite simply, it is a person’s job.
In a team setting, a role might simply be your position on the field, but it could also include a leader, mentor, or class clown.
A role is a set of behaviours that is required or expected of a person.
A norm is a pattern of behaviour, action, or belief that becomes common amongst all members of a team.
It is the “normal” thing that is consistently done on a team.
For some teams, a norm could be extra conditioning or weight-lifting sessions, showing up early to practice, or maintaining a team GPA of 75%.
A norm is a pattern of behaviour, action, or belief that becomes common for all members of a team.
Now that you have an understanding of roles and norms, we can look at the components of effective groups.
They include role clarity, role acceptance, role performance, and positive norms.
Teams that focus on developing role clarity, role acceptance, role performance, and positive norms are often very successful.
While many people place a considerable focus on role clarity and role acceptance, role performance often gets overlooked.
Unfortunately, if a player is not able to perform a role, then role clarity and acceptance will make little difference.
Improving Team Climate
In the movie Remember the Titans, Coach Boone is challenged with coaching a football team at a recently integrated high school.
His players naturally segregated themselves by race and showed little interest in working together.
Throughout the movie Coach Boone works to build a positive team climate and lead his team to success.
Remember the Titans highlights the importance of building a positive team climate.
There are several ways to improve team climate, including:
Social Support: Social support is “an exchange of resources between at least two individuals perceived by the provider or the recipient to be intended to enhance the well-being of the recipient” (Shumaker & Brownell, 1984, p. 13). When a person helps, gives advice, or offers support to someone, it builds a connection between those two individuals and enhances team cohesion.
Proximity: When people spend time near each other, they are more likely to connect and bond. This is why teams go to training camp together; it allows them to spend time together as a team.
Distinctiveness: What sets a team apart from everyone else? Their uniform. When groups feel distinct, their dynamics improve. A distinctive uniform increases feelings of “us” and “we,” which builds a positive dynamic.
Fairness: Athletes expect to be treated fairly by their coaches, and when they are, their satisfaction increases. Coaches who fairly assesses players’ strengths and weaknesses and communicate openly with players create a positive team climate.
Similarity: When players have similar goals, attitudes, and levels of commitment, the team climate is positive.
Task Interdependence: When players feel that they have a common fate and they must rely on each other to achieve success, their perceptions of the team climate are generally positive.
Why Teams Fail
We have spent the first part of this module discussing ways to enhance team performance.
Unfortunately, as we all know, teams do not always perform to their full potential.
In 1972 Ivan Steiner developed a model that shows why a team’s performance can suffer.
His model suggested that actual productivity equals potential productivity, minus losses due to faulty group processes.
A team’s potential productivity refers to their best-possible performance, or how good they could be.
So, according to Steiner’s Model, talent and individual ability are important factors for overall performance.
However, a team will not always reach their full potential; their actual performance is dependent upon their ability to work together.
Steiner’s Model: Actual productivity = Potential productivity – Losses due to faulty group processes.
Steiner suggested that teams lose productivity for two reasons: motivation losses and coordination losses.
Motivation losses refer to situations where players do not exert full effort.
Coordination losses are situations where players are unable to coordinate their movements or work together.
In order for teams to reach their potential, they need to limit losses due to motivation and coordination.
Social Loafing
As you heard in the audio clip, psychologists use the term “social loafing” to explain a situation where people put in less than 100% effort due to losses in motivation.
Social loafing can occur in a number of situations, but research has identified several conditions under which social loafing is increased:
- The individual’s output cannot be evaluated
- The task is perceived to be meaningless
- The individual’s personal involvement in the task is low
- Comparisons against other members is not possible
- Group members are seen as strangers
- Other group members are seen as high in ability
- Contributions are seen as redundant
- The competition is seen as weak
When looking at these conditions, it is easy to see why social loafing occurs.
When team members feel as though their contributions are unimportant, redundant, or unnecessary, they are likely to put in less effort.
Several strategies have been identified to limit social loafing:
Emphasize the importance of individual contributions: It is important for coaches to recognize the importance of each individual. Even players who do not enter the game play an important role in practice and should be recognized for their contributions.
Identify individual performances: When players know that their performance will be noticed, they are more likely to put forth full effort. This is why teams use video to review games and practices. Players know their performance will be seen and thus are less likely to loaf.
Identify when loafing may occur: If a coach is able to identify a situation when players may be losing motivation, she can find ways to reduce loafing. Her team may need a break to rest and recover or the coach might employ some other motivational technique.
Conduct meetings to discuss loafing: Coaches may want to discuss loafing with individual players to identify ways to increase motivation.
Assign players to other positions: By playing another position, a player can gain an appreciation for her teammates and better understand how his loafing may affect them.
Divide the team into smaller units: It is hard for players to loaf in small groups because they cannot hide among a larger group.
