WEEK 1 - 4

Question 1

WEEK 1

Question 2

MODULE 2

Question 3

Introduction to Sport and Exercise Psychology

Answer 3

When you think about successful people in any field, certain characteristics may come to mind:

Confidence
Perseverance
Focus
Ability to deal with stress
Leadership
Communication
Motivation

One major focus for the field of sport and exercise psychology is teaching people these skills (among others) to enhance their performance in all areas of their lives.

sport and exercise psychology focuses on all aspects of sport and exercise participation, including (but not limited to)
- body image
- eating disorders
- aggression
- exercise adherence
- the psychology of injury
- team building

Question 4

History of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Answer 4

The Early Years (1897–1920):

Norman Triplett (1897)

Indiana university in an area where cycling is common and popular
Triplett was an avid cyclist and was watching some cyclists one day, and he noticed ppl road further and faster when they are in groups than when they ride alone
In the past, ppl thought you always performed to your physical potential
ex. if I can ride for 5k in ten minutes, I will always do this unless I’m injured or tired
Triplett realized that there must be more than physical ability that can impact performance
Triplett was the first person to identify/discover sport psych = came to the conclusion that there is a mental aspect to sport performance

The Griffith Era (1921–1938):

Coleman Griffith (1928)

In Chicago, the first person to develop labs for sport psych
Did studies
Developed the first sport psych textbook
First person to apply what he learned in the labs to athletes
Football teams, Chicago cubs
This was just after WWI (1918)
and in the Great Depression
There was a gap in sport psych research, and the Soviet Union took over sport psych research because they wanted to create elite performers with a focus on the military and sport
The Soviet Union had great success with this, and Europe saw this and started studying as well

Preparation for the Future (1939–1965):

After WWI in 1945

North America starts to focus on sports pych again after seeing the success other countries are having (Soviet Union, Europe)
With no wars, we can focus on the Olympics and sport performance
The Olympics is seen as a way to assert dominance in the world other than war

1951: First journal

Academic Sport Psychology (1966–1977):

Bruce Ogilvie
1965: World congress of sport psych
1967: North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA)
Sport psychology becomes an established discipline

Multidisciplinary Science and Practice in Sport and Exercise Psychology (1978–2000):

1984: United States Olympic Committee (USOC)
1986: Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP) is founded
1987: American Psychological Association (APA) Div. 47
1991: AAASP Certification

Contemporary Sport and Exercise Psychology (2000–present):

Publicity
Exercise and health
Graduate programs
Educational concerns

Increases publicity, education, certifications
Further legitimize

Question 5

MODULE 2 SUMMARY

Answer 5

In this module we covered the history of sport and exercise psychology and current trends in the field.

To fully understand the field of sport and exercise psychology, it is important to know the people and eras that have shaped it as well as the current state of the field.

In addition, as a student in this course, it is critical for you to understand how sport and exercise psychology can influence your life.

The value in this course is that it can help you learn mental skills, which can enhance your performance in other areas of your life.

Question 6

Test Yourself

Answer 6

1. This was the first person to study sport psychology when he noticed that bikers rode further and faster in groups than when they were alone.

Norman Triplett

2. This was the first person to develop a sport psychology lab.

Coleman Griffith

3. After World War I, this country was at the forefront of sport psychology research and practice.

Russia

Question 7

TEXTBOOK
Chapter 1 Welcome to Sport and Exercise Psychology

Question 8

Sport and exercise psychology

Answer 8

is the scientific study of people and their behaviors in sport and exercise contexts and the practical application of that knowledge

Sport and exercise psychologists identify principles and guidelines that professionals can use to help adults and children participate in and benefit from sport and exercise activities.

Sport and exercise psychologists seek to understand and help elite athletes, children, persons who are physically or mentally disabled, seniors, and average participants achieve maximum participation, peak performance, personal satisfaction, and development through participation.

Question 9

Most people study sport and exercise psychology with two objectives in mind:

Answer 9

1. to understand how psychological factors affect an individual’s physical performance
2. to understand how psychological factors affect an individual’s physical performance

Question 10

They pursue this
study by asking the following kinds of questions:

Answer 10

Objective A: Understand the effects of psychological factors on physical or motor performance:

How does anxiety affect a basketball player’s accuracy in free-throw shooting?
Does lacking self-confidence influence a child’s ability to learn to swim?
How does a coach’s reinforcement and punishment influence a team’s cohesion?

Objective B: Understand the effects of physical activity participation on psychological development, health, and well-being:

Does running reduce anxiety and depression?
Do young athletes learn to be overly aggressive from participating in youth sports?
Does participation in daily physical education classes improve a child’s self-esteem?

Question 11

Specializing in Sport Psychology

Answer 11

Research Role
A primary function of participants in any scholarly field is to advance the knowledge in the field by conducting research.

Teaching Role
Many sport and exercise psychology specialists teach university courses such as exercise and health psychology, applied sport psychology, and the social psychology of sport. T

Consulting Role
A third role is consulting with individual athletes or athletic teams to develop psychological skills for enhancing competitive performance and training.

Question 12

Distinguishing Between Two Specialties

Answer 12

1. Clinical Sport Psychology

• have extensive training in psychology, so they can detect and treat individuals with emotional disorders (e.g., severe depression, suicidal tendencies).
• Clinical sport psychologists are licensed by state boards to treat individuals with emotional disorders and have received additional training in sport and exercise psychology and the sport sciences.

2. Educational Sport Psychology

• have extensive training in sport and exercise science, physical education, and kinesiology; and they understand the psychology of human movement, particularly as it relates to sport and exercise contexts.
• They are not trained to treat individuals with emotional disorders, however, nor are they licensed psychologists.

Question 13

Reviewing the History of Sport and Exercise Psychology

Question 14

Period 1: Early Years (1893–1920)

Answer 14

In North America, sport psychology began in the 1890s.

For example, Norman Triplett, a psychologist from Indiana University and a bicycle racing enthusiast, wanted to understand why cyclists sometimes rode faster when they raced in groups or pairs than when they rode alone

To test his hunch further, he also conducted an experiment in which young children were to reel in fishing line as fast as they could.

Triplett found that children reeled in more line when they worked in the presence of another child.

E.1. Scripture

Another early pioneer was E.W. Scripture, a Yale psychologist who was interested in taking a more scientific data-based approach to the study of psychology, as much of the psychology in these early years was introspective and philosophical

Scripture saw sport as an excellent way to demonstrate the value of this “new” scientific psychology, and with his students he conducted a number of laboratory studies on reaction and muscle movement times of fencers and runners as well as transfer of physical training.

Most interesting was the fact that Scripture worked closely with William Anderson of Yale, one of the first physical educators in America. This demonstrates that those in the fields of physical education and psychology worked together to develop sport psychology.

While Triplett and Scripture were part of the “new psychology” movement that focused on using experimental laboratory methods and measurement to gain knowledge, others were interested in the field from a more philosophical perspective.

Most notable was Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympic Games

Highlights of Period 1

1893: E.W. Scripture conducts data-based studies of athletes at Yale, examining reaction and movement times as well as transfer of physical training.

1897: Norman Triplett conducts the first social psychology and sport psychology experiment, studying the effects of others on cyclists’ performances

1897: Second Olympic Congress debates psychological effect of sport on youths.

1899: E.W. Scripture of Yale describes personality traits that he believes can be fostered via sport participation.

1903: Third Olympic Congress focuses on sport psychology.

1903: G.T.W. Patrick discusses the psychology of play.

1914: R. Cummins assesses motor reactions, attention, and abilities as they pertain to sport.

1918: As a student, Coleman Griffith conducts informal studies of football
and basketball players at the University of Illinois.

Question 15

Period 2: The Development of Laboratories and Psychological Testing (1921–1938)

Answer 15

This time period in the history of sport and exercise psychology has been
characterized by the development of sport psychology laboratories in Germany, Japan, Russia, and the United States and increased psychological testing

Coleman Griffith

the first North American to devote a significant portion of his career to sport psychology, and today he is regarded as the father of American sport psychology

developed the first laboratory in sport psychology, helped initiate one of the first coaching schools in America, and wrote two classic books, Psychology of Coaching and Psychology of Athletics.

He also conducted a series of studies on the Chicago Cubs baseball team and developed psychological profiles of such legendary players as Dizzy Dean

He corresponded with Notre Dame football coach Knute Rockne about how best to psych teams up and questioned Hall of Famer Red Grange about his thoughts while running the football.

Highlights of Period 2

1920: Robert Schulte directs a psychological laboratory at the German High
School for Physical Education.

1920: The first sport psychology department is begun by P.A. Rudik in
Moscow at the State Institute of Physical Culture.

1921: Schulte publishes Body and Mind in Sport

1921–1931: Griffith publishes 25 research articles about sport psychology.

1925: Schulte publishes Aptitude and Performance Testing for Sport

1925: University of Illinois research-in-athletics laboratory is established; Griffith is appointed director

1926: Griffith publishes Psychology of Coaching

1928: Griffith publishes Psychology of Athletics.

Question 16

Period 3: Preparation for the Future (1939–1965)

Answer 16

Franklin Henry

at the University of California, Berkeley, was largely responsible for the field’s scientific development.

He devoted his career to the scholarly study of the psychological aspects of sport and motor skill acquisition.

Henry trained many other energetic physical educators who later became university professors and initiated systematic research programs.

Warren Johnson and Arthur Slatter-Hammel

1939 to 1965

helped lay the groundwork for future study of sport psychology and helped create the academic discipline of exercise and sport science

Dorothy Hazeltine Yates

one of the first women in the United States to both practice sport psychology and conduct research

Yates consulted with university boxers, teaching them how to use relaxation and positive affirmations to manage emotions and enhance performance

Yates developed the technique, called the relaxation-set method, during World War II when she consulted with a college boxing team with considerable success.

David Tracy

was hired to work with the St. Louis Browns, a professional baseball team

His work was widely publicized and is credited with bringing attention to sport psychology

Highlights of Period 3

1938: Franklin Henry assumes a position in the department of physical education at the University of California, Berkeley, and establishes a graduate program in the psychology of physical activity.

1943: Dorothy Yates works with college boxers and studies the effects of her relaxation-training intervention.

1949: Warren Johnson assesses precompetitive emotions of athletes.

1951: John Lawther writes Psychology of Coaching.

1965: First World Congress of Sport Psychology is held in Rome.

Question 17

Period 4: Establishment of Academic Sport Psychology (1966–1977)

Answer 17

By the mid-1960s, physical education had become an academic discipline (now called kinesiology or exercise and sport science) and sport psychology had become a separate component in this discipline, distinct from motor learning.

Motor learning specialists focused on how people acquire motor skills (not necessarily sport skills) and on conditions of practice, feedback, and timing.

In contrast, sport psychologists studied how psychological factors—anxiety, self-esteem, and personality—influence sport and motor skill performance and how participation in sport and physical education influences psychological development (e.g., personality, aggression).

Bruce Ogilvie

San Jose State University

he is often called the father of North American applied sport psychology

Highlights of Period 4

1966: Clinical psychologists Bruce Ogilvie and Thomas Tutko write Problem Athletes and How to Handle Them and begin to consult with athletes and teams.

1967: B. Cratty of UCLA writes Psychology of Physical Activity.

1967: First annual NASPSPA conference is held.

1974: Proceedings of the NASPSPA conference are published for the first time

Question 18

Period 5: Multidisciplinary Science and Practice in Sport and Exercise Psychology (1978–2000)

Answer 18

From the mid-1970s to 2000, tremendous growth in sport and exercise psychology took place both in North America and internationally

The field became more accepted and respected by the public

Sport and exercise psychology also separated from the related exercise and sport science specializations of motor learning and control and motor development.

Dorothy Harris

professor at Pennsylvania State University, advanced the cause of both women and sport psychology by helping to establish the PSU graduate program in sport psychology

Her accomplishments included being:

• the first American and the first female member of the International Society of Sport Psychology,
• the first woman to be awarded a Fulbright Fellowship in sport psychology, and
• the first female president of the North American Society of Sport Psychology and Physical Activity.

Highlights of Period 5

1979: Journal of Sport Psychology (now called Sport and Exercise Psychology) is established.

1980: The U.S. Olympic Committee develops the Sport Psychology Advisory Board.

1984: American television coverage of the Olympic Games emphasizes sport psychology

1985: The U.S. Olympic Committee hires its first full-time sport psychologist.

1986: The first applied scholarly journal, The Sport Psychologist, is established

1986: AASP is established.

1987: APA Division 47 (Sport Psychology) is developed

1988: The U.S. Olympic team is accompanied by an officially recognized sport psychologist for the first time.

1989: Journal of Applied Sport Psychology begins

1991: AASP establishes the “certified consultant” designation

Question 19

Period 6: Contemporary Sport and Exercise Psychology (2001–Present)

Answer 19

Today sport and exercise psychology is a vibrant and exciting field with a bright future. However, some serious issues must be addressed

Highlights of Period 6

2000: The journal Psychology of Sport and Exercise is developed and published in Europe.

2003: APA Division 47 focuses on sport psychology as a specialized proficiency area.

2013: International Society of Sport Psychology Conference in China has more than 700 participants from 70 countries.

Concerns emerge about the best ways to prepare and educate students.

Exercise psychology flourishes, especially in university environments, driven by external funding possibilities and its utility in facilitating wellness and holding down health care costs.

Strong, diverse, and sustained research programs are evident around the world

Interest in applied sport psychology continues to increase.

Question 20

Focusing on Sport and Exercise Psychology Around the World

Answer 20

Sport and exercise psychology thrives worldwide. Sport psychology specialists work in more than 70 countries. Most of these specialists live in North America and Europe; major increases in activity have also occurred in Latin America, Asia, and Africa in the past decade.

Question 21

WEEK 3

Question 22

MODULE 3 Personality and Sport

Question 23

Introduction

Answer 23

Why do some students love physical education class while others do not want to participate?

What makes some people crave routine while others quickly get bored with routine?

Why do some exercisers seek out groups while others would prefer to workout alone?

From early attempts to identify the role of personality in sport and exercise settings to more recent work by sport organizations to pinpoint characteristics of successful athletes, personality has been a widely researched topic for many years.

Through this research we have gained insight into the structure of personality, how we can understand personality, and appropriate ways to utilize personality in sport and exercise settings.

In this module you will learn about personality and how it can impact behaviour and performance.

In addition, you will be introduced to several viewpoints of personality, common personality tests, personality traits that impact performance, and proper ways to use personality in sport and exercise.

Question 24

Defining Personality

Answer 24

Every person in the world is unique.

Even identical twins have preferences or behaviours that distinguish one from the other.

We all have characteristics that differentiate us from others.

Our personality is the sum of these characteristics, which makes us unique

To further understand personality, it is helpful to look at the different levels of personality.

Question 25

Ryecast Audio
Dr. Noah Gentner
The structure of personality

Answer 25

Layers of personality:

Role related behaviour

• the behaviours that we exhibit based on our role in a given situation
  ex. how you act at work, at school, with your friends
• ppl act differently depending on their role
  ex. at work, you may talk more, give direction – vs at school you could be quieter

Typical response

• our typical behaviours or actions across several different situations
• seeing common behaviours from several situations = start to see who the person really is and their personality
• not acting a certain way because of a role – more because of you they actually are = their typical response

Psychological core

• the center of a person’s personality
• who we truly are
• most stable layer of our personality
• truest measure/sense of who we are
• need to spend a lot of time with someone to see their psychological core (close friends, family, SOs)
• the theory behind personality tests = we get a glimpse of a person’s psychological core quickly, BUT the best way to get to someone’s psych core is to spend a lot of time with them

Question 26

Trait approach

Answer 26

The trait approach suggests that our personality is comprised of a number of stable characteristics that are not influenced by the environment.

That is, our personality is stable and determined by our genetic and biological traits.

Question 27

Situation approach

Answer 27

According to the situation approach, our behaviour and personality are shaped by our environment and experiences.

Therefore, our personality can be influenced by friends, family, teachers, coaches, and influential experiences.

Question 28

Interactional approach

Answer 28

The interactional approach views personality as an interaction between stable traits and environmental influences.

While each person has stable personality characteristics, our behaviour is also influenced by our experiences and the environment.

Question 29

Ryecast Audio
Dr. Noah Gentner describes the nature vs. nurture debate

Answer 29

Nature:

• some ppl believe we are born with our personalities
• genetics, biology
• I was born this way, and that’s how I’ve always been and will be

Nurture:

• I am who I am because of my experiences, who raised me, where I grew up, ppl around me who influenced me

Psychologists have studied nature vs nurture through twin studies

• what they found with identical twins who were seperated at birth was that it is a combination of nature and nurture
• there are some interesting similarities in behaviours, likes and dislikes, but they are also different and shaped by their environment

Question 30

Personality and Performance

Answer 30

A tremendous amount of time and money has been invested in trying to identify links between personality and performance.

In fact, many professional sport organizations use personality tests and other tools (e.g., interviews) to project the success of prospective players.

The validity of such methods has been debated, and there is still little evidence of a direct connection between personality and performance.

Despite the equivocal results of research connecting personality with performance, one interesting case has emerged: the Iceberg Profile.

Question 31

The Iceberg Profile

Answer 31

Morgan, W. (1979). Coach, athlete and the sport psychologist.

Morgan (1979) was able to identify a profile of elite athletes using the Profile of Mood States (POMS).

POMS assesses people on six characteristics:

1. tension,
2. depression,
3. anger,
4. vigour,
5. fatigue, and
6. confusion

Morgan was able to identify a unique profile for elite athletes.

The Iceberg Profile suggests that elite athletes score below the norm on all traits with the exception of vigour, on which they score well above the norm.

The “iceberg” look of the profile comes from the large peak in vigour, suggesting that elite athletes are full of vigour.

Less successful athletes tend to have much lower scores on vigour while scoring higher on other negative traits.

While these results are promising, most sport psychology professionals agree that the Iceberg Profile (and other personality tests) should not be used to predict performance or select team members.

Rather, they should be used to identify strengths and weaknesses and to develop training programs for athletes.

Question 32

Guidelines for Using Personality in Sport and Exercise

Answer 32

One of the preeminent goals of personality research in sport and exercise has been to identify ways to properly apply our knowledge of personality to sport and exercise settings.

That has included matching athletes with their “ideal” sport, team selection, and performance prediction.

Unfortunately, most attempts to connect personality with sport have been ineffective.

However, research has identified some important ways that personality can be used in sport and exercise.

Question 33

Sport psychology professionals have identified several other guidelines for using personality in sport:

Answer 33

Personality tests should not be used to choose teams or predict performance

Individual results on personality tests should be compared to previous results from the individual, not baseline data

Tests can be used to see the impact of sport or other interventions on certain psychological characteristics

Question 34

MODULE 3 Summary

Answer 34

In this module we covered the use of personality in sport and exercise.

To fully understand personality, it is important to know the structure of personality and what can influence it.

Furthermore, it is critical to know how to properly apply personality to sport and exercise settings.

When applied correctly, information about an individual’s personality can give us great insight into his/her strengths and weaknesses as well as how he/she might respond to different situations.

This might allow a coach or leader to positively influence players or employees.

Now that you have a better understanding of personality, your challenge is to identify how you can use this information to enhance your performance as well as others’.

Question 35

Test Yourself

Answer 35

1. This is the most stable layer of our personality.

Psychological core

2. This approach to personality suggests that our personality is determined by stable characteristics.

Trait Approach

3. Personality tests are a good way to predict performance.

False

Question 36

TEXTBOOK 7th ed
Chapter 3 Personality and Sport

Question 37

Defining Personality

Answer 37

Many theorists have attempted to define personality, and they agree on one aspect: uniqueness.

In essence, personality refers to the characteristics—or blend of characteristics— that make a person unique

Personality is the sum of the characteristics that make a person unique. The study of personality helps us work better with students, athletes, patients, and exercisers and work more effectively with coworkers.

One of the best ways to understand personality is through its structure

Think of personality as divided into three separate but related levels

1. role-related behavior
2. typical responses
3. psychological core

Question 38

Role-Related Behavior

Answer 38

How you act based on what you perceive your social situation to be is called role-related behavior.

This behavior is the most changeable aspect of personality: Your behavior changes as your perceptions of the environment change.

Different situations require playing different roles.

You might, on the same day, play the roles of student at a university, coach of a Little League team, employee, and friend.

Likely you’ll behave differently in each of these situations; for example, you’ll probably exert more leadership as a coach than as a student or employee.

Roles can conflict with each other.

For example, a parent who is coaching her child’s soccer team might feel a conflict between her coaching and parenting roles.

Question 39

Typical Responses

Answer 39

Typical responses are the ways we each learn to adjust to the environment or how we usually respond to the world around us.

For example, you might be happy-go-lucky, shy, and even tempered.

Often your typical responses are good indicators of your psychological core

That is, if you consistently respond to social situations by being quiet and shy, you are likely to be introverted, not extroverted

However, if someone observed you being quiet at a party and from that evidence alone concluded that you were introverted, that person could well be mistaken—it may have been the particular party situation that caused you to be quiet.

Your quietness may not have been a typical response.

Question 40

Psychological Core

Answer 40

The most basic level of your personality is called the psychological core

The deepest component, it includes your attitudes and values, interests and motives, and beliefs about yourself and your self-worth.

In essence, the psychological core represents the centerpiece of your personality and is “the real you,” not who you want others to think you are

For example, your basic values might revolve around the importance of family, friends, and religion in your life

Question 41

Understanding Personality Structure

Answer 41

The three levels of personality encompass a continuum from internally driven to externally driven behaviors

To simplify this, compare your levels of personality to a chocolate-covered cherry.

Everyone sees the outside wrapper (role-related behavior), those who go to the trouble to take off the wrapper see the chocolate layer (typical responses), and only the people interested or motivated enough to bite into the candy see the cherry center (psychological core).

The psychological core is not only the most internal of the three levels and the hardest to get to know; it is also the most stable part of your personality

It remains fairly constant over time

On the other end of the continuum are the most external, role-related behaviors, which are subject to the greatest influence from the external social environment

For example, you might always tell the truth because being truthful is one of your core values.

But your behavior might vary in some areas, such as being aloof in your role as a fitness director and affectionate in your role as a parent.

Usually your responses lie somewhere in between, however, because they result from the interaction of your psychological core and role-related behaviors.

Both stability and change are desirable in personality.

The core, or stable, aspect of personality provides the structure we need to function effectively in society, whereas the dynamic, or changing, aspect allows for learning

As a physical activity professional, we can be more effective when we understand the different levels of personality structure that lie beyond the role-related behaviors particular to a situation.

Getting to know the real person (i.e., the psychological core) and that person’s typical modes of response produces insight into the individual’s motivations, actions, and behavior.

In essence, we need to know what makes people tick to be able to choose the best way to help them.

It’s especially helpful to understand more about people’s individual core values (i.e., psychological core) when we work with them in the long term, such as over a season or more.

Question 42

Studying Personality From Six Viewpoints

Answer 42

Six of the major ways to study personality in sport and exercise are the:

1. psychodynamic,
2. trait,
3. situation,
4. interactional,
5. phenomenological, and
6. integrative, or biopsychosocial, approaches.

Question 43

Psychodynamic Approach

Answer 43

Popularized by Sigmund Freud and neo-Freudians such as Carl Jung and Erik Erikson, the psychodynamic approach to personality is characterized by two themes (Cox, 1998):

1. It places emphasis on unconscious determinants of behavior, such as what Freud called the id, or instinctive drives, and how these conflict with the more conscious aspects of personality, such as the superego (one’s moral conscience) or the ego (the conscious personality)
2. This approach focuses on understanding the person as a whole rather than identifying isolated traits or dispositions.

The psychodynamic approach is complex; it views personality as a dynamic set of processes that are constantly changing and are often in conflict with one another

For example, those taking a psychodynamic approach to the study of personality might discuss how unconscious aggressive instincts conflict with other aspects of personality, such as one’s superego, to determine behavior

Special emphasis is placed on how adult personality is shaped by the resolution of conflicts between unconscious forces and the values and conscience of the superego in childhood

Although the psychodynamic approach has had a major effect on the field of psychology, especially clinical approaches to psychology, it has had less effect on sport psychology

Some examples:

Swedish sport psychologist Erwin Apitzsch (1995) measured defense mechanisms such as denial in athletes and used this information to help performers better cope with stress and anxiety.

Strean and Strean (1998) discussed how psychodynamic concepts (e.g., resistance) can be used to explain athlete behavior—not just maladaptive functioning of athletes, but normal personality as well.

Another weakness of the psychodynamic approach is that it focuses almost entirely on internal determinants of behavior and gives little attention to the social environment.

For this reason, many contemporary sport psychology specialists do not adopt the psychodynamic approach.

Question 44

Trait Approach

Answer 44

The trait approach assumes that the fundamental units of personality—its traits—are relatively stable

That is, personality traits are enduring and consistent across a variety of
situations.

Taking the trait approach, psychologists consider that the causes of behavior generally reside in the person and that the role of situational or environmental factors is minimal.

Traits are considered to predispose a person to act a certain way regardless of the situation or circumstances.

ex. If an athlete is competitive, for example, she will be predisposed to
playing hard and giving her all regardless of the situation or score.

However, at the same time, a predisposition does not mean that the athlete will always act this way; it simply means that the athlete is likely to be competitive in sport situations.

The trait approach, which dominated the early study of personality, does not consider the particular situations that might also influence an individual’s behavior.

The most noted of the trait proponents in the 1960s and 1970s include Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, and Hans Eysenck.

Cattell (1965) developed a personality inventory with
16 independent personality factors that he believed describe a person

Today, the Big 5 model of personality is most widely accepted:

1. Neuroticism (nervousness, anxiety, depression, and anger) versus emotional stability
2. Extraversion (enthusiasm, sociability, assertiveness, and high activity level) versus introversion
3. Openness to experience (originality, need for variety, curiosity)
4. Agreeableness (amiability, altruism, modesty)
5. Conscientiousness (constraint, achievement striving, self-discipline)

The Big 5 model of personality has been shown to be of some use in understanding why different exercise interventions are appropriate for people with different personality characteristics

Question 45

Situation Approach

Answer 45

Concerns with the trait approach to studying personality motivated some researchers to focus on the situation or environment that might trigger behaviors rather than on personality traits.

The situation approach argues that behavior is determined largely by the situation or environment

It draws from social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), which explains behavior in terms of observational learning (modeling) and social reinforcement (feedback)

This approach holds that environmental influences and reinforcements shape the way you behave.

You might act confident, for instance, in one situation but tentative in another, regardless of your particular personality traits.

If the influence of the environment is strong enough, the effect of personality traits will be minimal.

For example, if you are introverted and shy, you still might act assertively or even aggressively if you see someone getting mugged.

Many football players are gentle and shy off the field, but the game (i.e., the situation) requires them to act aggressively.

Thus, the situation would be a more important determinant of their behavior than their particular personality traits would be.

Although the situation approach is not as widely embraced by sport psychologists as the trait approach, Martin and Lumsden (1987) contended that you can influence behavior in sport and physical education by changing the reinforcements in the environment.

Still, the situation approach, like the trait approach, cannot truly predict behavior.

A situation can certainly influence some people’s behavior, but other people will not be swayed by the same situation

Question 46

Situation Approach: The Paradox of Perfectionism

Answer 46

Perfectionism has been one of the most widely studied personality characteristic in sport and exercise psychology

Perfectionism is a personality style characterized by setting extremely high standards of performance, striving for flawlessness, and a tendency to be overly critical in evaluating one’s performance

The differentiation between perfectionistic striving versus perfectionistic concern is seen as especially critical in terms of determining whether perfectionism has positive or negative effects on the individual

Maladaptive, or unhealthy, perfectionism (a focus on high standards accompanied by a concern over mistakes and evaluation by others) has been found to be associated with excessive exercise , poor performance , and athlete burnout

Adaptive, or healthy, perfectionism (a focus on high standards but not excessively worrying about making mistakes or about how others evaluate one’s performance) has been found to be associated with better learning and performance and more adaptive goal patterns

Perfectionistic standards do not automatically undermine performance and with the right goal focus can lead to optimal performance.

Perfectionistic standards become debilitating when their attainment is
needed for self-validation.

Perfectionism is thought to be especially negative in times of failure.

Question 47

Interactional Approach

Answer 47

The interactional approach considers the situation and person as codeterminants of behavior —that is, as variables that together determine behavior

Knowing both an individual’s psychological traits and the particular situation is helpful in understanding behavior.

Not only do personal traits and situational factors independently determine behavior, but at times they also interact or mix with each other in unique ways to influence behavior.

For example, a person with a high hostility trait won’t necessarily be violent in all situations (e.g., as a frustrated spectator at a football game in the presence of his mother)

However, when the hostile person is placed in the right potentially violent situation (e.g., as a frustrated spectator at a football game with his roughneck friends), his violent nature might be triggered.

Situations alone are not enough to predict behavior accurately; an individual’s personality traits must also be considered.

The vast majority of contemporary sport and exercise psychologists favor the interactional approach to studying behavior.

Bowers (1973) found that the interaction between persons and situations could explain twice as many behaviors as traits or situations alone could.

The interactional approach requires investigating how people react individually in particular sport and physical activity settings.

Question 48

Phenomenological Approach

Answer 48

Although many contemporary sport and exercise psychologists adopt an interactional approach to the study of personality, the phenomenological approach is the most popular orientation taken today

Like the interactional view, the phenomenological approach contends that behavior is best determined by accounting for both situations and personal characteristics.

However, instead of focusing on fixed traits or dispositions as the primary determinants of behavior, the psychologist examines the person’s understanding and interpretation of herself and her environment

Hence, an individual’s subjective experiences and personal views of the world and of herself are seen as critical.

Many of the most prominent contemporary theories used in sport psychology fall within the phenomenological framework:

• self-determination theories of motivation such as cognitive evaluation theory
• achievement goal theory
• social cognitive theories such as Bandura’s self-efficacy
• much of the recent research focusing on cognitive characteristics associated with athletic success

Question 49

Integrative, or Biopsychosocial, Approach

Answer 49

The most recent approach to studying personality is the integrative, or biopsychosocial, approach

Those adopting this approach argue that the mission of those who study personality is to understand the “whole person” and an integrative framework that considers the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors is needed to truly understand one’s personality.

Hence, to understand personality, one needs to consider the dynamic interaction of biological factors, dispositional traits, adaptions one makes to situations, and self-defined life stories or narratives that are all situated in one’s social context or culture.

Especially interesting is the self-defined narrative component in which McAdams and Pals contend that we all develop our own self-stories based on both our own history and imagined future.

These narratives, which are anchored in one’s social or cultural context, help people develop meaning in their lives.

The integrative model is relatively new and is only now being used to guide sport and exercise psychology research.

For example, Mallett and Coulter (2016) used the McAdams and Pals (2006) whole-person framework to examine the personality of a successful Olympic coach.

This framework provided a deep understanding of the coach, and the investigators found that compared to personality disposition norms, the coach was conscientious, stable, agreeable, and open to new experiences.

His orientation toward achievement and power striving influenced his motivational actions.

His personal narrative helped him make sense of his life and showed that he invested himself in his athletes, helping them develop their potential in an effort to seek redemption for situations in which he had fallen short as an athlete.

The integrated model helped the researchers understand this coach in a more complete and holistic way than if they had examined only his disposition.

Question 50

Differences Among the Six Approaches

Answer 50

The six approaches, or viewpoints, to understanding personality differ in several important ways.

First, they vary along a continuum of behavioral determination ranging from the view that behavior is determined by a person’s internal characteristics (e.g., psychodynamic theories) to the view that behavior is determined by the situation or environment (e.g., situation approach).

Second, they vary greatly in terms of assumptions about the origins of human behavior—whether behavior is determined by fixed traits or by conscious or subconscious determinants and how important a person’s active interpretation of herself and her environment is

The integrated biopsychosocial model shows promise, but is only starting to be used.

Question 51

Measuring Personality

Answer 51

When research is conducted appropriately, it can shed considerable light on how personality affects behavior in sport and exercise settings.

Psychologists have developed ways to measure
personality that can help us understand personality traits and states.

Many psychologists distinguish between an individual’s typical style of behaving (traits) and the situation’s effects on behavior (states).

This distinction between psychological traits and states has been critical in the development of personality research in sport.

However, even though a given psychological trait predisposes someone to behave in a certain way, the behavior doesn’t necessarily occur in all situations.

Therefore, you should consider both traits and states as you attempt to understand and predict behavior.

Question 52

Trait and State Measures

Answer 52

The Trait Sport Confidence Inventory asks you to indicate how you “generally” or typically feel, whereas the State Sport Confidence Inventory asks you to indicate how you feel “right now,” at a particular moment in a particular situation.

Question 53

Situation-Specific Measures

Answer 53

Although general scales provide some useful information about personality traits and states, situation-specific measures predict behavior more reliably for given situations because they consider both the personality of the participant and the specific situation (interactional approach)

For example, Sarason observed in 1975 that some students did poorly on tests when they became overly anxious.

These students were not particularly anxious in other situations, but taking exams made them freeze up.

Sarason devised a situationally specific scale for measuring how anxious a person usually feels before taking exams (i.e., test anxiety)

This situation-specific scale could predict anxiety right before exams (state anxiety) better than a general test of trait anxiety could.

Question 54

Trait Sport Confidence Inventory

Answer 54

Think about how self-confident you are when you compete in sport.

Answer the following two questions based on how confident you generally feel when you compete in your sport.

Compare your self-confidence with that of the most self-confident athlete you know.

We can predict behavior better when we have more knowledge of the specific situation and the ways individuals respond to particular types of situations.

Question 55

Sport-Specific Measures

Answer 55

Sport-specific measures of personality predict behavior in sport settings better than do general personality tests.

Historically, almost all of the trait and state measures of personality in sport psychology came from general psychological inventories that did not specifically reference sport or physical activity

This is not the case today as a number of sport-specific tests have been developed.

Sport-specific tests provide more reliable and valid measures of personality traits and states in sport and exercise

Question 56

Fluctuations Before and During Competition

Answer 56

Feelings change before and during a competition.

Usually states are assessed shortly before (within 30 minutes of) the onset of a competition or physical activity.

Although a measurement can indicate how someone is feeling at that moment, these feelings might change during the competition.

For example, Mateo’s competitive state anxiety 30 minutes before playing a championship football game might be very high.

However, once he takes a few good hits and gets into the flow of the game, his anxiety might drop to a moderate level.

In the fourth quarter, Mateo’s anxiety might increase again when the score is tied

We need to consider such fluctuations when evaluating personality and reactions to competitive settings

Question 57

Using Psychological Measures

Answer 57

The knowledge of personality is critical to success as a coach, teacher, health care professional, or exercise leader.

You may be tempted to use psychological tests to gather information about the people whom you want to help professionally.

Bear in mind, however, that psychological inventories alone cannot actually predict athletic success, and they have sometimes been used unethically—or at least inappropriately—and administered poorly

It is essential that professionals understand the limitations and the uses and abuses of testing in order to know what to do and what not to do.

A better approach to using personality measures is to:

• identify athletes who might need greater support,
• to identify athletes and exercisers who might be more susceptible to disputes and clashes, and
• to help oneself as a physical activity leader or coach understand one’s own personality

You want to be able to make an informed decision—that is, to be an informed consumer —on how (or whether) to use personality tests.

In 1999, the American Psychological Association and the National Council on Measurement in Education provided seven helpful guidelines on the use of psychological tests

Question 58

Know the Principles of Testing and Measurement Error

Answer 58

Before you administer and interpret psychological inventories you should understand testing principles, be able to recognize measurement errors, and have well-designed and validated measures.

Not all psychological tests have been systematically developed and made reliable.

Making predictions or drawing inferences about an athlete’s or exerciser’s behavior and personality structure on the basis of these tests would be misleading and unethical.

Even valid tests that have been reliably developed may have measurement errors.

Suppose you wish to measure self-esteem in 10- to 12-year-old physical education students

You choose a good test developed for adults because no tests have been developed specifically for youngsters

If the students do not fully understand the questions, however, the results will not be reliable

Also, results might be less reliable because of cultural differences.

Question 59

Know Your Limitations

Answer 59

The American Psychological Association recommends that people administering tests be aware of the limitations of their training and preparation.

However, some people do not recognize the limits of their knowledge, or they use and interpret test results unethically, which can be damaging to the athletes

For instance, it is inappropriate to use personality inventories developed to measure psychopathology (abnormality, such as schizophrenia or manic depression) to measure a more normal increase in anxiety.

Furthermore, it is inappropriate to give physical education students a clinical personality test

Individuals need special training (e.g., certification, course work) in psychological assessment to be qualified to interpret results from personality tests.

Question 60

Do Not Use Psychological Tests for Team Selection

Answer 60

Using only psychological tests to select players for a team is an abuse because the tests are not accurate enough to be predictive.

For example, determining whether an athlete has the “right” psychological profile to be a middle linebacker in football or a point guard in basketball on the basis of psychological tests alone is unfair.

Some psychological tests may have limited use, but they must be considered in conjunction with physical performance measures, coach evaluations, and the actual levels of play.

Using personality inventories alone to select athletes for a team or to cut them from a team is an abuse of testing that should not be tolerated.

When psychological tests are used as part of a battery of measures to help in the athlete-selection process, three key conditions should always be kept in mind (Singer, 1988):

1. The particular test must be a valid and reliable measure.
2. The user must know what personality characteristics are key for success in the sport of interest and the ideal levels of those characteristics needed.
3. The user should know how much athletes can compensate in some characteristics for the lack of others

Question 61

Include Explanation and Feedback

Answer 61

Before they actually complete tests, athletes, students, and exercisers should be told the purpose of the tests, what they measure, and how the tests are going to be used.

Athletes should receive specific feedback about the results to allow them to gain insight into themselves from the testing process.

Question 62

Assure Athletes of Confidentiality

Answer 62

It is essential to assure people that their answers will remain confidential in whatever tests they take (and to ensure that this confidentiality is maintained!).

With this assurance, test takers are more likely to answer truthfully.

When they fear exposure, they may fake or falsify their answers, which can distort the findings and make interpretation virtually useless.

Students in a physical education class might wonder if a test will affect their grades, and in these circumstances they are more likely to exaggerate their strengths and minimize their weaknesses.

Question 63

Take an Intraindividual Approach

Answer 63

It is often a mistake to compare an athlete’s psychological test results with the norms, even though in some cases such a comparison might be useful.

Athletes or exercisers might seem to score high or low in anxiety, self-confidence, or motivation in relation to other people, but the more critical point is how they are feeling relative to how they usually feel (an intraindividual approach).

Use this psychological information to help them perform better and enjoy the experience more, but relative to their own standards, not the scores of others.

Question 64

Understand and Assess Specific Personality Components

Answer 64

A clear understanding of the components of personality provides you with some perspective for using and interpreting psychological tests.

For example, to measure someone’s personality, you would certainly be interested in her psychological core.

You would select specific types of tests to gain an accurate understanding of the various aspects of her personality

To measure more subconscious and deeper aspects of personality, you could use a projective test, for example.

Projective tests usually include pictures or written situations, and the test takers are asked to project their feelings and thoughts about these materials

Hence, someone might be shown a photo of an exhausted runner crossing a finish line at the end of a highly contested cross country race and then be asked to write about what is happening

A high-achieving, confident person might emphasize how the runner made an all-out effort to achieve her goal, whereas a low achiever might project feelings of sorrow for losing the race in a close finish.

Projective tests are interesting, but they are often difficult to score and interpret.

Consequently, sport psychologists usually assess personality in sport by looking at typical responses invoked by the actual situation they are interested in.

For instance, coaches want to know more than whether an athlete is generally anxious—they also want to know how the athlete deals with competitive anxiety.

Question 65

Focusing on Personality Research

Answer 65

The research from the 1960s and 1970s yielded few useful conclusions about the relationship of personality to sport performance.

In part these meager results stemmed from methodological, statistical, and interpretive problems, which we discuss later.

Researchers were divided into two camps

1. Morgan (1980) described one group as taking a credulous viewpoint; that is, these researchers believed that personality is closely related to athletic success.
2. The other group, he said, had a skeptical viewpoint and argued that personality is not related to athletic success.

Neither the credulous nor the skeptical viewpoint appears to have proved correct.

Rather, some relationship exists between personality and sport performance and exercise involvement, but it is far from perfect.

That is, although personality traits and states can help predict sport behavior and success, they account for only some of the behavior and may not be as precise as hoped

For example, the fact that some Olympic long-distance runners exhibit introverted personalities does not mean that a long-distance runner needs to be introverted to be successful.

Question 66

Athletes and Nonathletes

Answer 66

Try to define an athlete. It isn’t easy.

Such ambiguity in definitions has weakened this research and clouded its interpretation.

Traits that are desirable for sport—such as independence and assertiveness—are not specific to either men or women. All good athletes must possess these personality traits.

Consistent personality differences distinguish athletes from nonathletes. However, these differences tend to be very small.

Question 67

Female Athletes

Answer 67

In 1980, Williams found that successful female athletes differed markedly from the normative female in terms of personality profile

Compared with female nonathletes, female athletes were more achievement oriented, independent, aggressive, emotionally stable, and assertive.

Most of these traits are desirable for sport.

Apparently, outstanding athletes have similar personality characteristics regardless of whether they are male or female.

Few personality differences are evident between male and female athletes, particularly at the elite level.

Question 68

Positive Mental Health and the Iceberg Profile

Answer 68

After comparing personality traits of more successful athletes with those of less successful athletes using a measure called the Profile of Mood States (POMS), Morgan developed a mental health model that he reported to be effective in predicting athletic success

Basically, the model suggests that positive mental health as assessed by a certain pattern of POMS scores is directly related to athletic success and high levels of performance.

Morgan’s model predicts that an athlete who scores above the norm on the POMS subscales of neuroticism, depression, fatigue, confusion, and anger and below the norm on vigor will tend to pale in comparison with an athlete who scores below the norm on all of these traits except vigor, instead scoring above the norm on vigor

Successful elite athletes in a variety of sports (e.g., swimmers, wrestlers, oarsmen, and runners) are characterized by what Morgan called the iceberg profile, which reflects positive mental health

The profile looks like an iceberg in that all negative traits are below the surface (population norms) and the one positive trait (vigor) is above the surface.

In contrast, less successful elite athletes have a flat profile, scoring at or below the 50th percentile on nearly all psychological factors

Morgan’s mental health model proposes that successful athletes exhibit greater positive mental health than less successful (or unsuccessful) athletes exhibit.

Question 69

Performance Predictions

Answer 69

Morgan (1979) psychologically evaluated 16 candidates for the 1974 U.S. heavyweight rowing team using the POMS, correctly predicting 10 of the 16 finalists.

Success with this and similar studies led Morgan to conclude that more successful athletes exhibit the iceberg profile and more positive mental health than those who are less successful.

However, most sport psychologists vehemently oppose using psychological tests for team selection and, in fact, Morgan did not think the test should be used for selection purposes.

Personality testing is far from perfect (only 10 of 16 rowers were correctly predicted), and use of testing for selection might mean that athletes will be unfairly and erroneously selected for or cut from a team.

Tests can help identify an athlete’s psychological strengths and weaknesses, and this information can be used to develop appropriate training in psychological skills.

Question 70

Drawing on research and his experience in consulting with athletes, Terry recommended that the POMS test be used in the following ways:

Answer 70

To monitor the athlete’s mind-set
To catalyze discussion during one-on-one sessions
To improve one’s mood over time
To identify problems early
To monitor the mood of team officials and support staff
To monitor training load (see chapter 22 for more details)
To monitor an athlete during the acclimatization process
To identify overtrained athletes (see chapter 22)
To monitor an athlete during rehabilitation from overtraining (see chapter 22)
To monitor emotional responses to injury (see chapter 20)
To predict performance (but not for athlete selection)
To individualize mental training

Question 71

Big 5 Personality Correlates of Physical Activity

Answer 71

The relationship between physical activity involvement and the Big 5 personality traits of neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness has been examined in a variety of studies.

A meta-analysis of 33 of these studies revealed that extraversion and conscientiousness are positively related to physical activity involvement, while neuroticism is negatively related

This makes sense as people who are more sociable or outgoing and more self-disciplined and achievement oriented are more likely to exercise, while those who are depressed and anxious are not.

However, similar to the relationship between personality measures and athletic involvement, these associations are relatively small and mostly correlational.

This has lead reviewers to conclude that “behavioral action is unlikely to arise directly from personality” and the greatest contribution will come from looking at how other personality constructs interact with environment considerations to produce behavior

Question 72

Grit

Answer 72

In her best-selling book Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance, psychologist Angela Duckworth (2016) introduced the notion of grit, an important personality characteristic related to the pursuit of goals in many fields

Grit is defined as “… trait-level perseverance and passion for long-term goals”

It involves maintaining interest and effort while strenuously working toward goals and challenges despite facing adversity, failure, and slow progress

Gritty individuals exhibit stamina when working toward achievement and maintain their effort over years

A valid and reliable measure of grit has been developed, and in addition to an overall scale score, two subscales are assessed: consistency of one’s interest and perseverance of effort

Duckworth and her colleagues studied a variety of populations in a variety of settings and found that within those settings, grittier individuals are less likely to drop out of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, and more likely to stay married, spend time practicing spelling, and further their education

While Duckworth discusses the importance of grit to sport success, only a few studies have begun to explore this relationship

In a study examining the predictive validity of grit in predicting West Point cadet attrition and performance, grit was found to predict physical and athletic performance

In a study of high- versus low-grit elite youth soccer players, Larkin, O’Connor, and Williams (2016) found that gritty players engaged in significantly more training, competition, play, and indirect soccer involvement

The grittier players were also found to perform better than their less gritty counterparts on perceptual-cognitive skills tests.

Although additional studies are needed, initial evidence points to the importance of grit in predicting athlete and exerciser performance and motivation.

Question 73

Type A Behavior

Answer 73

The type A behavior pattern is characterized by a strong sense of urgency, an excess of competitive drive, and an easily aroused hostility

The antithesis of the type A behavior pattern is called type B

Initially, a link was found between type A behavior and increased incidence of cardiovascular disease

Later, it was suspected that the anger–hostility component of the type A construct is the most significant disease-related characteristic

Although the causes of type A behavior have not been conclusively determined, considerable evidence points to the sociocultural environment, such as parental expectations of high standards in performance, as the likely origin

Early efforts to modify type A behavior through exercise interventions have had mixed results

One positive study showed that a 12-week aerobics program not only was associated with reductions in type A behavior but also helped participants significantly reduce cardiovascular reactivity to mental stress

Thus, changing type A behavior patterns through exercise could result in positive health benefits.

Question 74

Self-Concept

Answer 74

Exercise appears to also have a positive relationship with self-concept

Sonstroem (1984) suggested that these changes in self-concept might be associated with the perception of improved fitness rather than with actual changes in physical fitness

Although studies so far have not proved that changes in physical fitness produce changes in self-concept, exercise programs seem to lead to significant increases in self-esteem, especially with subjects who initially show low self-esteem.

For example, Martin, Waldron, McCabe, and Yun (2009) found that girls participating in the Girls on the Run program had positive changes in their global self-esteem and in appearance, peer, physical, and running self-concepts.

Exercise and increased levels of fitness appear to be associated with increases in self-esteem, especially among individuals initially low in self-esteem.

Question 75

Examining Cognitive Strategies and Success

Answer 75

Although some differences are evident among the personality traits and dispositions of athletes and exercisers, researchers have not been satisfied with the utility of the information thus far.

For this reason, many contemporary investigators have adopted the phenomenological approach to studying personality and turned from studying traditional traits to examining mental strategies, skills, and behaviors that athletes use for competition and their relationship to performance success

One of the first studies to take this approach was an investigation by Mahoney and Avener (1977) of gymnasts competing for berths on the U.S. men’s gymnastics team

The authors found that the gymnasts who made the team coped better with anxiety, used more internal imagery, and used more positive self-talk than those who didn’t make the team.

Olympic medalists, unlike nonmedalists, internalize their strategies to the extent that they react automatically to adversity.

Question 76

Athletic Coping Skills Inventory–28 (ACSI)

Answer 76

Smith, Schutz, Smoll, and Ptacek (1995) developed and validated a measure of sport-specific psychological skills, the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory–28 (ACSI).

The ACSI yields an overall score of an athlete’s psychological skills as well as scores on the following seven subscales:

1. Coping with adversity
2. Peaking under pressure
3. Goal setting and mental preparation
4. Concentration
5. Freedom from worry
6. Confidence and achievement motivation
7. Coachability

Question 77

In-Depth Interview Techniques

Answer 77

Researchers have also attempted to investigate the differences between successful and less successful athletes by taking a qualitative approach

In-depth interviews probe the coping strategies that athletes use before and during competition.

The interview approach provides coaches, athletes, and sport psychologists with much more in-depth personality profiles of an athlete than do paper-and-pencil tests

For example, all 20 members of the 1988 U.S. Olympic freestyle and Greco-Roman wrestling teams were interviewed.

Compared with nonmedalist wrestlers, Olympic medal winners used more positive self-talk, had a narrower and more immediate focus of attention, were better prepared mentally for unforeseen negative circumstances, and had more extensive mental practice

Question 78

Mental Plans

Answer 78

Mental planning is a large part of cognitive strategies

Olympic athletes learn a systematic series of mental strategies to use before and during competition, including refocusing plans.

Thus, they come prepared mentally not only to perform but also to handle distractions and unforeseen events before and during the competition

These mental plans especially help athletes whose sense of control (a personality trait) is low; the plans allow them to feel more in control regardless of situational influences

Question 79

Mental Strategies Used by Successful Athletes

Answer 79

To enhance confidence, successful athletes practice specific plans for dealing with adversity during competition.

They practice routines for dealing with unusual circumstances and distractions before and during a competition.

They concentrate wholly on the upcoming performance, blocking out irrelevant events and thoughts.

They use several mental rehearsals before competition.

They don’t worry about other competitors before a competition and focus instead on what is controllable.

They develop detailed competition plans.

They learn to regulate arousal and anxiety.

Question 80

Identifying Your Role in Understanding Personality

Answer 80

Use these guidelines to help you better understand the people with whom you work now and to consolidate what you have learned about personality structure:

1. Consider both personality traits and situations.

To understand someone’s behavior, consider both the person and the situation. Along with understanding personality, always take into account the particular situation in which you are teaching or coaching.

2. Be an informed consumer.

To know how and when to use personality tests, understand the ethics and guidelines for personality testing. This chapter has provided guidelines. As a professional, it will be your responsibility to understand the dos and don’ts of personality testing.

3. Be a good communicator.

Although formal personality testing can disclose a great deal about people, so can sincere and open communication. Asking questions and being a good listener can go a long way toward establishing rapport and finding out about an individual’s personality and preferences

4. Be a good observer.

Another good way to gain valuable information about people’s personalities is to observe their behavior in different situations. If you combine your observation of an individual’s behavior with open communication, you’ll likely get a well-rounded view and understanding of his or her personality.

5. Be knowledgeable about mental strategies.

A constellation of mental strategies facilitates the learning and performance of physical skills. Be aware of these strategies and implement them appropriately in your programs, selecting them to benefit an individual’s personality.

Question 81

Nature Versus Nurture and Gravitation Versus Change

Answer 81

Given recent advances in genetic research and testing, the question of whether personality is determined genetically (by nature) or through the environment (by nurture) is highly relevant to sport and physical activity professionals.

Although this issue has not been studied in sport and exercise psychology per se, general psychological research shows that personality both has a genetic base (up to 60%) and that it is influenced by learning.

Both extreme positions regarding nature versus nurture, then, are false

Genetics and the environment determine one’s personality.

Moreover, some research suggests that although we may be genetically predisposed to have certain characteristics, our environment influences whether and how much we manifest these characteristics.

In sport and exercise psychology, then, we focus primary attention on learning and environmental influences because sport and exercise science professionals can influence personality development regardless of the role of genetics in personality.

A second critical question addressed in personality research focuses on the notion of whether certain individuals gravitate to specific sports because of their personality characteristics (the gravitation hypothesis) or whether one’s personality changes as a result of participation in sport and physical activity (the change hypothesis).

Although some evidence exists for both notions, neither has been convincingly demonstrated, most likely because both have an element of truth.

Question 82

CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY

Answer 82

Describe what makes up personality and why it is important:

• Personality refers to the characteristics or blend of characteristics that makes individuals unique
• It comprises three separate but related levels: a psychological core, the most basic and stable level of personality; typical responses, or the ways each person learns to adjust to the environment; and role-related behaviors, or how a person acts based on what she perceives the situation to be.
• Role-related behavior is the most changeable aspect of personality.

Discuss major approaches to understanding personality:

• Six major routes to studying personality in sport and exercise are the:
  1. psychodynamic,
  2. trait,
  3. situation,
  4. interactional,
  5. phenomenological, and
  6. integrative, or biopsychosocial, approaches.

Question 83

WEEK 4

Question 84

MODULE 4 Exercise Adherence

Question 85

Introduction MOD 4

Answer 85

Exercise is a critical component of weight management and overall health

Unfortunately, research suggests that the majority of people do not participate in regular exercise

This has led to increasingly high rates of obesity in North America

According to the Canadian Obesity Network, one-in-four Canadian adults are clinically obese

This epidemic has led to a decrease in the overall health of the country and an increase in health care expenses

As obesity rates have climbed, so too has the focus on getting people to start an exercise program and adhere to it for the long term

This is often a daunting task, but research has identified several ways in which we can increase exercise behaviour and adherence.

In this module you will learn about exercise adherence. This will include the reasons why people do not exercise and theories of exercise adherence.

Question 86

Introduction to Exercise Behaviour

Answer 86

We all know a person who does not exercise, and each person typically has a number of excuses for why they are unable to be active. The three most common excuses for not exercising are:

• Lack of time
• Lack of energy
• Lack of motivation

While lack of time is the most oft-cited reason for not exercising, these three excuses are also related.

Take the example of the mother of two young kids who works a very busy office job.

When she looks at her schedule, it is easy for her to perceive a lack of time for exercise.

She might also feel that even if she did have the time, she would be too tired to exercise because she is so busy.

Furthermore, even if she had the time and energy, it is likely that she would be motivated to do several other things (e.g., spend time with family, relax, do chores, run errands, etc.) rather than exercise.

When people start making excuses, it becomes easy for them to exclude exercise from their daily routine for months if not years.

Question 87

The Tomato Effect

Answer 87

In our efforts to increase exercise adherence, it is important to know the common excuses people use for not exercising.

However, simply combating those excuses is not enough; we must think of other ways to get people to exercise.

While tomatoes are a staple of most of our diets, there was a time when people avoided them.

Based on the idea that tomatoes are from the poisonous nightshade family, people in North America did not eat them for hundreds of years.

This was despite the fact that tomatoes were a common part of the European diet.

This resistance to something that is beneficial because it does not “make sense” despite evidence to the contrary has been referred to as the Tomato Effect

Often used in medical fields, the Tomato Effect refers to a situation when a person will not engage in a beneficial treatment.

For example, some people will not take medicine even though they know it is helpful.

This concept can be applied to exercise to describe a situation when a person will not engage in exercise even though he/she knows it is good for him/her.

The tomato effect refers to a situation when a person will not engage in an activity even when he/she knows it is beneficial.

Question 88

What does this tell us about increasing exercise adherence?

Answer 88

It appears that simply reminding people of the benefits of exercise is not enough to get them started. Therefore, we must identify different methods to increase exercise adherence.

Question 89

Theories of Exercise Adherence

Answer 89

One of the best ways to identify methods to increase exercise adherence is to consider several different theories of exercise behaviour.

Each of these theories provides information about people’s exercise behaviour as well as considerations for increasing adherence

Specifically, these theories can be used to predict the likelihood that a person will change his/her behaviour and begin exercising and identify ways to increase exercise adherence.

Therefore, as we cover each theory, we will focus on the following questions:

• What are the factors that influence exercise behaviour according to this theory?
• How might you use this theory to predict if a person will change his/her behaviour?
• How would you use this theory to increase exercise adherence?

Question 90

Dr. Noah Gentner explaining the Health Belief Model

Answer 90

• widely used model of behaviour change
• can use for exercise adherence
• trying to get ppl to change their behaviour and become physically active
• also widely used in other areas (quit smoking, change diet)

Focuses on 2 key points

1. the pros and cons of changing behaviour

what are the pros of changing health behaviours?

ex. feeling better

cons ex. change is difficult, creatures of habit, take psych effort and energy = going to take time and be challenging

do the pros outweigh the cons?

if yes, ppl most like will go through changes

2. when considering change, what are the neg effects of not changing = if I don’t change, what bad thing will happen?

ex. not exercising – what bad thing will happen to me?
if a doc tells you’re high risk of heart disease, pre-diabetic = serve consequences and makes ppl want to change

is someone scared enough to make a change?

Question 91

What are the factors that influence exercise behaviour according to this theory

Answer 91

Pros vs. cons: A person’s exercise behaviour is based on his perception of the pros and cons of changing his behaviour.

Negative consequences of avoiding change: If a person believes something bad will happen if they do not change (e.g., illness or death), they will be more likely to change.

Question 92

How might you use this theory to predict if a person will change his/her behaviour?

Answer 92

When assessing the likelihood of change, the Health Belief Model suggests you look at the pros and cons of making the change. For example, a person might say that exercise will help them lose weight but the extra time away from family and work is not worth it.

The second thing to consider is whether or not the person is scared of the health consequences of not changing. Many people do not believe that anything bad will happen to them if they maintain their sedentary lifestyle. On the other hand, if a person has a health scare, such as a heart attack or diabetes, he/she is much more likely to change.

Question 93

How would you use this theory to increase exercise adherence?

Answer 93

According to the Health Belief Model, if you want a person to change her behaviour, you need to make the pros outweigh the cons. By accentuating the positive outcomes of the behaviour and eliminating or diminishing the negatives, you can increase a person’s chances of change.

I often refer to this theory as the “scare them” theory. This is because it suggests that people will change their behaviour when they are sufficiently scared. When the doctor tells a person that they are at high risk of a heart attack or are in the early stages of lung cancer, it is likely that person will change his/her behaviour.

Question 94

Dr. Noah Gentner explaining the Expectancy Value Theory

Answer 94

• Expectancy Value Theory explains behaviour change
• according to this theory, when considering making a change, there are 2 things to consider

1. value

• ppl need to see value – see there is something they are going to get from change
• we don’t do something difficult unless we know there is a valuable outcome

2. expectancy

• confidence/ability
• i will change if I believe that I can

therefore, ppl need to value the change and believe that they can change

Question 95

What are the factors that influence exercise behaviour according to this theory?

Answer 95

Expectations (confidence): A person’s exercise behaviour is based on his confidence in his ability to change.

Value: A person will only change her behaviour if she values the change. In order to change, people need to see value in the new behaviour.

Question 96

How might you use this theory to predict if a person will change his/her behaviour?

Answer 96

When assessing the likelihood of change, the Expectancy Value Theory suggests you look at the individual’s confidence and the value they see in the change.

A person will only change her behaviour when she thinks she will get something of value from the change and she believes she has the ability to make the change.

Question 97

How would you use this theory to increase exercise adherence?

Answer 97

According to this theory, you can increase exercise adherence by enhancing the individual’s confidence and showing him/her that there is great value in making this change.

Question 98

Dr. Noah Gentner explaining the Theory of Planned Behaviour

Answer 98

• gives us insight into behaviour change
• based on a few principles:

1. attitude

• need a pos attitude about the change
• need to think it’s something valuable, someone good for you

2. subjective norms

• surrounded by ppl who support that behaviour
• ex. difficult to exercise when no one else exercises

one you have a pos att and support, then you have the intention to make the change

3. perceived behavioural control

• confidence
• once you have the intention to undergo a behaviour change because you have a pos att and subjective norms, you need to believe you have the ability to do it

having all 3 = much more likely to go through with a behavioural change

Question 99

What are the factors that influence exercise behaviour according to this theory?

Answer 99

Attitude: How a person feels about a specific behaviour is a major determinant in his/her actions.

Subjective norms: We are all influenced by other people’s behaviours and opinions. When we see other people engaging in a behaviour and supporting that behaviour, we are much more likely to participate as well.

Perceived behavioural control (confidence): Similar to the Expectancy Value Theory, confidence is a key component of behaviour change in this theory as well.

Question 100

How might you use this theory to predict if a person will change his/her behaviour?

Answer 100

When assessing the likelihood of change, this theory suggests that you look at the individual’s attitude toward the behaviour as well as his/her environment.

If the individual has positive feelings about the behaviour and are in a supportive environment, he/she is likely to change.

In addition, you must also assess the individual’s confidence in his/her ability to change.

Question 101

How would you use this theory to increase exercise adherence?

Answer 101

According to this theory, behaviour change can occur if you can get people to have a positive attitude about a change and surround them with supportive individuals.

It is much easier to quit smoking or eat healthy when the people closest to you support you and engage in the change with you.

Finally, behaviour change can be initiated with an increase in confidence.

Question 102

Increasing Exercise Adherence

Answer 102

As you read about the various theories of exercise behaviour, did you notice any common themes?

If you review the theories again, you might notice seeing the following concepts a number of times:

Value:

• Whether you call it value, having a positive attitude, or believing the pros outweigh the cons, many of the theories suggest that behaviour change only happens when people think it is worthwhile.
• Think about your own life: you will only make a change if you think something good will come from that change.

Confidence:

• Many people avoid change because they do not think they have the ability to be successful.
• In order to initiate change, people have to believe they can do it.

Social support:

• It is very difficult to quit smoking when all of your friends smoke.
• Similarly, it’s hard to eat healthy when everyone else in your family has a poor diet
• Social support is a critical component to behaviour change.

Question 102

Increasing Exercise Adherence

Answer 102

As you read about the various theories of exercise behaviour, did you notice any common themes?

If you review the theories again, you might notice seeing the following concepts a number of times:

Value:

• Whether you call it value, having a positive attitude, or believing the pros outweigh the cons, many of the theories suggest that behaviour change only happens when people think it is worthwhile.
• Think about your own life: you will only make a change if you think something good will come from that change.

Confidence:

• Many people avoid change because they do not think they have the ability to be successful.
• In order to initiate change, people have to believe they can do it.

Social support:

• It is very difficult to quit smoking when all of your friends smoke.
• Similarly, it’s hard to eat healthy when everyone else in your family has a poor diet
• Social support is a critical component to behaviour change.

Question 103

Value

Answer 103

Personalize it: Find out what is important to the person

Accentuate the positive: Highlight the good things that will come from the change

Eliminate the negative: Help them remove barriers

Question 104

Confidence

Answer 104

Set them up for success: Let them experience some success early

Positive feedback: Encouragement is a great way to build confidence

Show them their success: When people see their own positive results, they will feel pride and increased confidence

Question 105

Social Support

Answer 105

Be there for them: You can be the positive support they need

Involve others: Encourage them to involve their family and friends in the change

Question 106

This theory suggests that people will change their behaviour when they are sufficiently scared.

Answer 106

Health Belief Model

Question 107

According to the Theory of Planned Behaviour, our intentions to change come from our attitude and subjective norms.

Answer 107

True

Question 108

3. The most important factor in behaviour change is social support.

Answer 108

False