Week 8: Indigenous Politics Flashcards
Demographics
Indigenous canadians: those who can trace their ancestry before the arrival and permanent settlement of europeans
The definition of “aboriginal” comprises those people who report identification with at least one indigenous group… North American Indian, Métis, and Inuit
2,204695 people (about 6.2% of national population)
1,673,780 people (4.9% of the Canadian population) reported identifying with an indigenous group
In 2001: 3.3%
Roughly ½ of these are status of registered indigenous people
Standard of Living:
Twice as likely as other Canadians to be unemployed
Status indigenous living on reserves are four times more likely to be unemployed
On average, indigenous Canadians earn about three quarters of what other Canadians earn
Government transfer payments make up ⅕ of indigenous income, compared to about 1/10 for non-indigenous
Falling below low income line is twice as likely for non-reserve indigenous Canadians, and is considerably higher for those living on reserves
About 3 out of 10 indigenous Canadians have not completed high school
Almost 5 out of 10 indigenous Canadians on reserves have not completed high school
Versus 12% of non-indigenous Canadians
Indigenous policy in New France:
Under french colonial rule: no official recognition of any indigenous title to land they had previously occupied
Conversion of the indigenous population to christianity was a central objective
Implemented through the missionary work of Jesuits and the Recollets
In 1627 a converted indigenous person had the status and rights of a naturalized French citizen
Assimilation + non recognition of indigenous lands claimed by France = two key principles underlying policy
in New France
But New France was sparsely populated
Indigenous policy after the Conquest:
Everything changed after the Seven Years War
The Royal Proclamation of 1763:
- Indigenous interest in the land was acknowledged within context of British sovereignty and colonial expansion
British signed treaties (11 of them)
Initially involved lump-sum payments or allowances/
annuities
Later reserves were set aside with benefits like exclusive fishing and hunting rights
In exchange, pre-contract rights were given up
Indigenous Policy after Confederation:
Indian Act of 1876:
- Status indians given certain rights and privileges
- All money generated from economic activities controlled by the federal authorities
- Reserves are subject to restrictions on land ownership, mortgages, and economic activities
- Paternalistic
Provisions in the Indian Act:
An “indian” is any male person of indian blood who belonged to a band recognized by the federal government, as well as dependents
Women could acquire status through marriage, but those who married a non-indian would lose status which changed in 1985
Change also eliminated the possibility of acquiring status from marriage
Federal government sets the rules that determine who is or isn’t “indian”
First nations bands determine who is entitled to be a band member and live on their reserve
Many bands have enforced “marry out, get out” rules,
and have been charged with discrimination
Assimilation
Reserves governed by band councils and chiefs elected for three year terms
Actions of band councils still subject to approval by Ottawa
Democratic practices of European origin were expected to replace indigenous traditions of governance
No automatic right to Canadian citizenship for status Indians before 1960
Sanctions used to stamp out indigenous traditions included the 1884 ban on the potlatch ceremony and on traditional dances
Prohibition on using indigenous languages in the federally run residential schools
Illegal to bring legal action against the government
Residential schools were the harshest effort at assimilation
Children were forced from their families to isolate them from indigenous cultural influences
Widespread physical and mental abuse, and neglect
The death toll is still unknown, but we are now finding hundreds of unmarked graves
The inuit:
Canadian law also recognizes the Métis and Inuit who are not covered in the indian act
1939 SCC decision: the inuit are indians within the
meaning of the constitution
This means that the federal government has a responsibility for their welfare
Inuit granted de facto self-government through territory of Nunavut
The Métis
Métis: mixed blood descendants of unions between indian women and scots of french speaking settlers in the red river region of manhattan
May also be considered Indians under the law if they are descendants of Métis who were part of Indian communities that fell under treaties
Today, some people of mixed indigenous and european ancestry have appropriated the term ‘Métis’
Self id has increased from roughly 190,000 to close to 600,000
Supreme court of canada (2016): Métis persons, as well as non-status indians must be treated the same as status indians under canadian law
Allows these groups to claim health and education benefits
The inuit and metis are grouped with first nations people in section 35 of the constitution act, 1982, which recognizes and affirms the ‘existing aboriginal and treaty rights of the aboriginal peoples of canada’
The 1969 white paper
PM Pierre Trudeau released the 1969 white paper
Proposed the dismantling of the indian affairs bureaucracy, reserve system, special indian status and a transfer of responsibility to the provinces
States that historical treaties should not be expected to be recognized in perpetuity
Legacy of the white paper
Anchored in integrationist ideology from the early civil rights movement
Forcefully rejected by indigenous leaders as assimilationist… the birth of the indigenous movement
From then on, government policy has been directed at recognize self-government and land rights
The reserve system
The indian act of 1876: the term reserve means any tract or tracts of land set apart by treaty or otherwise for the use or benefit of or granted to a particular band of indians, of which the legal title is in the crown, but which is unsurrendered, and includes all the trees, wood, timber, soil, stone, minerals, metals, or other valuables thereon or therein.
At the heart of this definition: the guardianship relationship between the federal government and those living on reserves
Because reserve land belongs to the crown, virtually no legal or commercial transaction of consequence could be undertaken without permission
Over 2,300 indian reserves in canada, with roughly 330,000 first nations people residing in them
- About two-thirds of reserves are in BC
- Three quarters of all reserves are uninhabited
- Most inhabited reserves have populations of fewer than 1,000 people
Reserve life:
Most reserves in rural and remote areas; often cannot be reached by road
Consequences:
- Fewer job opportunities
- Often required to leave home to acquire secondary and post-secondary education
- Physical isolation prevents integration into the rest of society
The average life expectancy and incomes of those who live on reserves are significantly lower than the population average
Higher rates of suicide, alchoholism, violent death, unemployment, crowded housing conditions, and infant mortlaity
The reserve system is also highly paternalistic:
- Until the 1940s, status indians were not allowed to leave without the written permission of an indian agent
- Band members may not sell any part of the reserve
- The federal government retains the ultimate authority to grant timber cutting licenses
- Reserve land may not be used as security for loans
Indigenous attitudes towards the reserve system is complex. Why?
- Isolation may be a good thing for some: “for many registered indians and those without legal status, the reserve is a physical and spiritual home, despite the hardships that may exist therein
- Reduces assimilationist pressure; can help protect indigenous languages
- Only 3 languages out of 70 are spoken in large numbers; retention is low
Beyond reserves
It is important to not reduce the totality of indigenous politics to poverty in the reserve system:
Many reserves are thriving usually due to natural resource development
Most first nations people live off reserve (most in cities) and the system doesn’t apply to the Inuit and Metis
Indigenous politics is highly complex!
Post white paper indigenous policy
1969
Pierre trudeau
Strip status
Contentious
