Week 8

Question 1

What characterised the Old English period in terms of language status?

Answer 1

Old English (OE) had a West-Saxon “standard,” but after the Norman Conquest, it was relegated to a low-status, everyday language as French and Latin gained prestige.

Question 2

What were the three main languages in Early Middle English (11th-13th c.) and their associated social functions?

Answer 2

1. French: high language, used by the ruling class.
2. Latin: high language, used for religion, law, and scholarship.
3. English: low language with no prestige, used in everyday speech.

Question 3

How did the language status of English shift in Late Middle English (14th-15th c.)?

Answer 3

English saw a revival, with regional dialects emerging in written forms due to political forces pushing for language uniformity. French and Latin still held high status.

Question 4

Why did English persist as a spoken language instead of being replaced by French after the Norman Conquest?

Answer 4

1. English was everyday language for the common people.
2. Literary levels, which were low, prevented people from learning French and Latin.
3. The Norman conquerors didn’t actively try to wipe out English, nor its speakers.
4. Politics and national affiliations; because of the breaking of the political ties between Normandy and England, the nations started seeing each other as seperate.
5. Social change; the primarily English-speaking lower classes gained more power and prestige (amongst other things due to the Black Death). The language gained more prestige with it.

The fact that French was the elite language became a disadvantage when the political rift between England and Normandy happened and the social structure changed in society.

Question 5

How did King John’s actions lead to a decline in Norman French influence in England?

Answer 5

King John lost the Normandy territory to the French King Philip in 1204 after political conflicts, leading Anglo-Norman nobility to lose estates and prompting them to choose an allegiance with either France or England.

Question 6

What historical event increased English national identity and diminished the influence of Norman French?

Answer 6

The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) between England and France intensified English national identity. This growing hostility made Norman French the language of the enemy, furthering the decline of French in England.

Question 7

The Hundred Years’ War

Answer 7

1337-1453

Question 8

How did English begin to gain political and social importance in the 14th century?

Answer 8

The Black Death (1348-1350) led to significant population loss, increasing the social importance of English speakers, particularly among the rising merchant and middle classes, who used English for record-keeping and business.

Question 9

How did John Wycliffe contribute to the resurgence of English during the Middle English period?

Answer 9

John Wycliffe (d. 1384) challenged Church authority by advocating for the Bible to be translated into English, promoting literacy and accessibility of religious texts in English.

Question 10

What developments in English literature indicated a revival of the English language in Late Middle English?

Answer 10

Notable works like Chaucer’s writings, mystery plays, and “Mort Arthure” showcased a flourishing English literary tradition, emphasizing the language’s comeback in cultural life.

Question 11

Why did Norman French lose its status as the high language in England over time?

Answer 11

With the decline of Norman influence and the rise of English-speaking commerce and middle-class literacy, Norman French gradually lost prestige and was eventually taught only as a foreign language, with the continental Parisian dialect as a model.

Question 12

How did the revival of English affect spelling practices in Middle English?

Answer 12

English spelling absorbed Norman scribal traditions, leading to considerable variation as English lacked a standardised spelling system.

Question 13

What were some specific orthographic changes in English during the Middle English period?

Answer 13

The letters thorn (þ), eth (ð), and wynn (ƿ) were retired, replaced by th, y, and w.

The ash (æ) sound shifted to a in native words.

The v/u distinction developed, with v representing the voiced sound.

Question 14

Black death

Answer 14

1348-1350

Question 15

What social shift contributed to English making a comeback during the Middle English period?

Answer 15

English re-emerged as groups within society became literate in English rather than in French, reflecting a shift in social dynamics and the increasing value of English literacy among non-elite classes.

Question 16

What happens to the long vowel [a:] in the development from Old English (OE) to Middle English (ME)?

Answer 16

1. Long [a:] raises to [æ] in some environments (e.g., OE “na”, “mast”, “ham”, “ane” → ME “no”, “most”, “home”, “one”).
2. This change does not occur in Northern dialects.
3. There was also confusion because there was a long [o:] with similar spelling in OE, like “gat” → “goot” or “gote” [gɔ], which became “goose” [gu] in ME.

Question 17

How did diphthongs develop in English during the Middle English period?

Answer 17

In voiced environments, [y] became [w] → merged with the preceding vowel, forming diphthongs like:
• /ʌʊ/ in ‘bow’ (from OE “boga”).
• /ɔʊ/ in ‘law’ (from OE “lagu”).

The [j] glide also merged with the preceding vowel, creating diphthongs like:
• /aɪ/ in ‘day’ (from OE “dæg”).
• /eɪ/ in ‘way’ (from OE “weg”).

Question 18

What effect did nasal consonant clusters have on short vowels in Middle English?

Answer 18

Short vowels lengthened before clusters with nasal consonants, such as:
/nd/, /ld/, /mb/, /rd/, /rn/, /ŋ/.

Examples:
1. Child → children (lengthening of vowel before cluster).
2. Lamb (from OE “lambru”).
3. Wind (noun) vs. Wind (verb) — analogous to the windmill, window distinction.
4. Grind vs. Grindstone.

Question 19

What is open syllable lengthening, and how did it affect certain words in Middle English?

Answer 19

Open syllable lengthening occurred in two-syllable words, causing vowels like [a], [o], and [e] to lengthen.

Examples:
1. OE cran → cranas → PDE crane.
2. OE staef → stafas → Modern English stave (but also staff).

In some cases, the inflected pronunciation from Old English survived into PDE (e.g., “crane” from OE “cran”).

Question 20

What happened to long vowels in closed syllables during the transition from Old English to Middle English?

Answer 20

Long vowels were shortened in closed syllables consisting of a consonant cluster.

Examples:
Hide → hid (PDE).
Keep → kept (PDE).

This shortening did not affect long vowels in open syllables.

Question 21

What was the Great Vowel Shift, and how did it impact vowel pronunciation?

Answer 21

The GVS primarily affected long vowels in English, causing big changes in their pronunciation:

1. [iː] (machine) → [aɪ] (bite)
2. [e:] (beet) → [i:] (beet)
3. [ɛ:] (make) → [eɪ] (mate)
4. [a:] (father) → [æ:] (cat)
5. [ɑː] (father) → [ɔː] (law)
6. [oː] (goose) → [uː] (goose)
7. [uː] (goose) → [aʊ] (out)
8. [ɔː] (law) → [oʊ] (law)

Question 22

What sound change occurred with the [h] sound in Middle English?

Answer 22

The [h] sound was lost before [l], [n], and [r].

Examples:
OE hlaf → PDE love.
OE hraðor → PDE rather.
OE hnacod → PDE naked.

Question 23

What was the phenomenon of h-dropping in unstressed words during Middle English?

Answer 23

Initial [h] was dropped in unstressed syllables in many varieties of Middle English.

Example:
Hwich → Witch.

This phenomenon is not present in some American English varieties or Scots English.

Question 24

How did the sound [č] change in unstressed syllables during Middle English?

Answer 24

The sound [č] (the “ch” sound) was lost in unstressed syllables.

Examples:
OE ich → PDE I.
Suffix -lic (“like”) became -ly (as in “quickly”).

Question 25

What change occurred with the [w] sound in Middle English?

Answer 25

The [w] sound was lost between [s] and [t] when followed by a back vowel.

Example:
OE swæt → ME sweet.
OE swt → PDE sweet (loss of the [w] sound).

Question 26

How did the sounds [v], [z], and [ð] develop in Middle English?

Answer 26

The sounds [v], [z], and [ð] became phonemic, appearing in both initial and final positions.

Examples:
1. Loans: fine/vine, few/view.
2. Dialect mixing: fox/vixen (Southern English).
3. Reduction of inflections: “house” (verb) vs. “house” (noun), with different pronunciations depending on context.

Question 27

What happened to function words (like pronouns and prepositions) in Middle English?

Answer 27

Function words like “this,” “that,” “the,” and “of” underwent reduction of stress.

This reduction led to changes in pronunciation, especially in unstressed syllables, which affected the rhythm and flow of the language.