Week 7, Performance Management, Terms & Citations Flashcards
1
Q
Performance Appraisal
A
- Observation, evaluation, and documentation of employee’s work related behaviors.
- Used for Administrative and Developmental purposes
** e.g.Used to determine compensation and training needs - Data can be used as criterion for validation
2
Q
Goal Alignment
A
*PA is a tool to align individual performance goals with
organizational performance.
** A.K.A. Goal Alignment
- Part of a Performance Management System
** Inform employees on developmental areas
** Give them the tools to achieve goals (e.g. training, POS variables)
** Demonstrate that rewards follow performance
3
Q
Meta–Goals of PA
A
- Denisi & Sonesh (2011)
- Original goal of PA was accuracy
- Relied heavily on the psychometric tradition
- May have slowed the growth of PA research and caused a disconnect between academics and practitioners
- Authors suggest the goal is really performance improvement
and perceived fairness.
4
Q
PA process
A
- Job analysis - describes work and personal requirements of a particular job.
**Identifies components of job. - Performance standards - translate job requirements into levels of acceptable
/ unacceptable performance (management’s responsibility) - Development of PA system – choose format and supporting materials,
training, documentation, etc. - Performance appraisal - actual process of gathering information on individuals based on job requirements. Describes the job-relevant strengths
and weaknesses of each individual - Communicate Feedback to employees!
5
Q
Performance appraisal
A
- One of the most delicate topics in personnel management
- Both supervisors and subordinates tend to be mistrustful
of the uses of PA information - Both are aware of the political and practical implications
of the ratings - Often uncomfortable during the appraisal interview
6
Q
The Criterion Problem
A
- PA Historical issues
- Criteria - operational statements of goals or other desired
outcomes - Standards that can be used as “yardsticks” for measuring
employee success or failure - Continues to be a stumbling block for industrial / organizational
psychologists - Relatively little research on the topic (Kell, 2022)
- Often resort to the most readily available, or most expedient
criteria
7
Q
Example Criterion
A
Output Measures
# units produced
# of items sold
Quality measures
# of errors
# of complaints
rate of scrap
Training measures
time to reach standard performance
level of proficiency
8
Q
Criterion Development
A
- Depend upon prior value judgments about what forms of
behavior are desirable
** conceptual criteria
***Thorndike’s Ultimate Criteria - Forms the basis from which the operational criteria can
be derived - Criterion must be based on job analysis
9
Q
Evaluating Criteria
A
- Discrimination – capable of discerning between effective and
ineffective employees
** # of goods produced in an assembly line setting is a poor
criterion
** little justification in using # of units since the most effective
workers do not differ significantly from the least effective
workers - Practicality
- Relevance – Based on JA
** Contamination
** Deficiency
10
Q
Criterion Contamination
A
- Measuring extra dimensions unrelated to the job
- Occurs when the operational criterion includes variance that is
unrelated to the “ultimate criterion” (Thorndike , 1949) - “Ultimate criterion” include everything that defines success on
the job (perfect employee)
11
Q
Contamination
A
- May be due to 3 things
** Error - random variation ( ex. Non-standardization in
measurement procedures). Error tends to “average out”
because of its random nature.
** Bias - systematic criterion contamination. Criterion bias is a
great concern to I/O professionals because it is so pervasive.
** Poor design of the PA instrument or outdated instrument
12
Q
Criterion Deficiency
A
- Occurs when the entire performance domain is not measured during the PA process
- Dimensions deemed relevant and important in the JA are not
included in the operational criterion - Outdated JA often result in deficiencies
13
Q
Criteria diagram
A
image
14
Q
Composite vs. Multiple Criteria
A
2 opinions
- Should provide an overall measure of “success” or “value to the organization”
** Supporters of this position argue that we need a single index
(Brogden & Taylor, 1950; Nagle, 1953) - Measures of different variables should not be combined.
** Combining measures leads to a composite that not only is
ambiguous, but is psychologically nonsensical
- “Ten Men and two bottles of beer cannot be added to give the same total as two men
and ten bottles of beer “
** Cattell (1957)
15
Q
Composite vs. Multiple Criteria?
A
- The resolution essentially depends on the objectives of
the investigator - If the goal is increased understanding of the predictor
criterion relationship, then the criterion elements are
best kept separate - Also better for developmental purposes (specific
feedback) - If decision making is the objective then the criterion
elements should be weighted into a composite
16
Q
Composite & Multiple Criteria!
A
- You can have it both ways!
- Compute statement on SPSS to do both
- Generally accepted that job performance is multi-dimensional
- Dimension1 + Dimension2 + Dimension3 = Composite
17
Q
What is Job Performance?
A
- Campbell et al. (1996) state that a variety of prediction and
intervention strategies can considerably increase job performance - BUT… “a full understanding of what these strategies can do is still being held back by a lack of substantive theory and measurement
development on the performance side” (p. 291). - Criticize that researchers often fail to fully define the job
performance construct - Often operationalized as “overall job performance” only
18
Q
Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, and
Sager (1993)
A
- Job-specific task proficiency: substantive or technical tasks that distinguish the substantive content of one job or position from another“
- Non-job-specific proficiency: The performance behaviors are not specific to a particular job, but still are required to execute main tasks.
- Written and oral communication: This component refers to level of proficiency with which an individual can communicate (in written or spoken form) his or her ideas, independent of the correctness of the subject matter. It also captures how individuals perform written task assignments.
- Demonstrating effort: An individual demonstrates effort to the degree he or she keeps working under adverse conditions, is committed to job tasks, and works at a high level of intensity.
19
Q
Campbell, McCloy, Oppler, and
Sager (1993)
A
- Maintaining personal discipline: This factor describes the extent to which counterproductive behaviors (such as alcohol and substance abuse at work, law or rule infractions, and excessive absenteeism) are avoided. On the other hand, it also refers to the degree of proficiently managing time and skill resources.
- Facilitation of peer and team performance: These behaviors include supporting and training peers, helping them with job problems, facilitating group functioning by being a good model, keeping the group goal directed, and reinforcing other peers’ participation.
*clustered
**Supervision/leadership: These behaviors capture the degree to which an individual influences “the performance of subordinates through face-to-face interpersonal
interactions and influence ” (Campbell, 199, p. 406). Specifically, supervisors participate in goal setting activities, teach and model effective behaviors, and reward and punish.
** Management/ administration: The final factor refers to management activities, including
“articulating goals for the unit or enterprise, organizing people and resources to work on them, monitoring progress, helping to solve problems or overcome crises that stand in the way of goals accomplishment, controlling expenditures
20
Q
Borman and Motowidlo (1993)
A
- Task Performance
** Consists of activities that transform raw materials into the
goods and services that are the organization’s products. - Contextual Performance
** Does not contribute to the organization’s core technical
processes
** Maintains the broader organizational, social, and psychological
environment in which the technical core must function - Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)
- Discretionary
21
Q
OCBs
A
- Barnard (1938)
**“willingness of persons to contribute to the cooperative system is indispensable” - But I/O was hung up on ability for 60 years
- OCBs seem to get at the concept Barnard observed in his
research - Helping co-workers, making supervisors jobs easier, following the spirit of the rules
- Addresses the disconnect between satisfaction and performance
- Very low correlations between satisfaction and task performance
- However satisfied people engage in more OCBs
- Likely perceived as better performers by supervisors
- Contribute to the psychological climate of the org
22
Q
Rotundo & Sackett (2002)
A
- Rotundo & Sackett (2002) suggest that CWB may now
be considered a component of job performance - Counterproductive Work Behaviors (CWB) typically encompass actions that go against organizational norms.
** Ex - stealing, sabotaging equipment, leaving work
early, sexual harassment, workplace violence - Negatively impact both the organization and the individuals comprising it.
23
Q
Types of PA measures
A
- Objective performance measures
- Can include production data (ex. Dollar volume of sales) , number of
errors, or personnel data (ex. accidents, absences, tardiness). - Although on the surface these objective measures seem reasonable,
they have several weaknesses. - Influenced by any number of factors that may be out of an employees
control - Objective measures don’t focus on behavior, but rather the outcomes
of behavior.
24
Q
Subjective Measures
A
- The disadvantages of objective measures led researchers and managers to place more emphasis on subjective measures
- Depend on human judgment they are prone to certain kinds of biases
- Involves two distinct processes :
** Observation - detection perception and recall of specific behavioral events
** Judgment - categorization, integration, and evaluation of
information
** Relative - comparisons are made between a group of ratees
** Absolute - ratees are described without reference to each other
25
Q
Who Does The Rating ?
A
- In view of the purposes served by performance appraisal, who does the rating is an important
consideration. - In addition to being trained in the techniques of rating, raters must have direct experience with, or first hand knowledge of the individuals to be rated.
** Ex. shift example (supervisor of third shift works days).
26
Q
Immediate Supervisor
A
- Up to 93% of all PA programs ask the immediate supervisor to take
sole responsibility for the performance appraisal. - Makes sense
** probably most familiar with each individuals performance
** best able to evaluate the subordinates performance in light of the organizations overall objectives.
** supervisor is also probably the one who will use the information
(promote , fire)
*research has shown that feed back from supervisors is more highly related to performance than that from any other source.
27
Q
Peer Assessment
A
- Rich source of performance feedback
- Have favorable reliability, validity, and relative freedom from biases
** BUT… - Research has shown that negative peer rating produced significantly
lower perceived performance of the group, lower cohesiveness, &
satisfaction (Denisi et al., 1983) - Peers tend to give inflated ratings to avoid conflict
- Can have unforeseen political consequences
- Peer assessments are probably best considered as only one element in
the performance appraisal process , Result of peer assessment may be
used in joint employee- supervisor reviews
28
Q
Appraisal by Subordinates
A
- Offer a different perspective on the managers performance
- Know the extent that the manager delegated, plans, type of leadership
style, & how well they communicate. (universities do it all the time -
teacher evals.) - Sub ratings have proven to be valid predictors of subsequent
supervisors ratings over 2,4, and 7 year periods. (McEvoy & Beatty,
1989). - Rating should be very reliable (multiple raters)
- Anonymity is very important, raters must feel that they cannot be
identified (averaging ratings insures this)
29
Q
More ratings..
A
- Self Appraisal
** When compared with appraisals by supervisors, peers, and
subordinates, self appraisals tend to show more leniency, less
variability, more bias, and less agreement with the judgments
of others
** These types of ratings are more useful for career counseling
and development than for personnel decisions - Appraisal by clients
** In jobs that require a high degree of interaction with the public,
appraisal can sometimes be done by the consumers of an
organization services.
** Tend not to encode specific behaviors, but rather the outcomes
of those behaviors. (ex. “service was okay but the food was
terrible”).
30
Q
Multi-rater feedback systems
A
- 360 degree feedback
- Incorporates all of the above sources of performance
information - All jobs have different contact points in the organization
- Employees are rated by individuals (or groups) at those
contact points so feedback is relevant - Rich source of feedback!
- $$$
31
Q
APPROACHES
TO
PEFORMANCE APPRAISAL
A
Ranking
Narrative Essay
Absolute ratings
Dichotomous vs. Continuous
Forced Choice
System
Likert Approach
Graphic Rating Scale
32
Q
Ranking
A
- Simple ranking- requires the rater to order all employees from highest to lowest, from “best” to “worst”
- Alternation Ranking - rater first chooses the best ratee (#1) then the worst (#50), then the second best (#2) and the second worst (#49). And so forth…
** Easy to explain and are helpful in making personnel decisions.
** Tend to be global in nature and lack behavioral specificity. (this makes them subject to legal challenges)
** Can usually pinpoint the best few workers and the worst few workers but this process becomes more difficult in the middle of the distribution (results in poor reliability when employees are ranked at a later time).
33
Q
Narrative Essay
A
- The rater is required to describe in writing the employees, strengths , weaknesses, and potential as well as make suggestions for improvement.
Provides qualitative information. - The major advantage of the narrative essay is that they provide detailed feedback to employees
- The disadvantages are:
** They are unstructured
** Vary greatly in length and content
** Comparisons across individuals, groups, or departments are impossible.
34
Q
Absolute ratings
A
- Behavioral checklists - the rater is provided with a series
of descriptive statements of job related behavior - Checks statement that describes the ratee in question
- However this gives us dichotomous data…
35
Q
Dichotomous vs. Continuous
A
Employee is punctual for work assignments (yes or no)
How punctual is the employee for work assignments?
36
Q
Forced Choice
System
A
Technique developed to reduce leniency errors
Employee is:
Punctual OR Reliable
37
Q
Likert Approach
A
- Employee is punctual for work assignments
a = always
b = usually
c = sometimes
d = not usually
e = never - Variation of this method is the Graphic rating scale
38
Q
Graphic Rating Scale
A
Quality of work – caliber of work produced or accomplished compared with acceptable standards
Outstanding
Above Average
Average
Below average
39
Q
Criticism
A
- What is outstanding ?
- What is average ? Below average ?
- These ratings will differ across raters because personal
definitions will vary
40
Q
BARS
A
Quality of work – caliber of work produced or accomplished compared with acceptable standards
Outstanding
(Definition: …)
Above Average
(Definition: …)
Average
(Definition: …)
Below average
(Definition: …)
41
Q
Barriers to the PA process
A
- Political barriers - stem from deliberate attempts by raters to
enhance or to protect their self interests. - Political considerations are simply the facts of life, they occur in all
organizations. - It appears that accuracy of ratings is less important to managers
than motivating and rewarding subordinates - ex. Unfairly low ratings may be given to an individual so they will
not be promoted out of a department. Or very high ratings will
be given to make the manager look good - Interpersonal barriers - arise from the actual face to
face encounter between subordinate and superior. - Supervisors often resist making face to face appraisals
- Rather than confront workers with negative feedback,
supervisors often find it easier to just give average or
slightly above average ratings to poor performers
(damn with faint praise)
42
Q
Perceptual biases
A
- We are cognitive cheapskates
- We use schema, attributions, and heuristics to answer performance
questions instead of looking at all the facts (satisficing). - Ex assign higher ratings to subordinates where results appear to be due to high motivation and effort, rather than just look at performance
levels alone - Appraisal is a subjective process
- We are measuring a latent construct “performance”, we have
indicators of this construct, but those are imperfect.
43
Q
PA Biases
A
- EX.
** Halo error - assigning ratings on the basis of an overall global
impression of the individual.
** Perhaps the pervasive bias in performance appraisal
** If halo is present their will be spuriously high inter-correlations
between the dimensions
** True Halo
44
Q
Bias Due to Group Membership
A
- Supervisors may hold implicit ideas about the performance of certain groups that may bias his or her ratings of individuals who belong to that group.
- Ex. Military status
45
Q
PA a “Bad” Thing ?
A
- Feedback often framed in a dysfunctional fashion
- Developmental feedback (or any kind of feedback) is just
information - The uncomfortable emotions we experience aren’t inherent in that information
- Must frame the feedback appropriately
46
Q
Using Feedback
A
- Developmental Feedback is the key to self correcting adjustment
- Knowing you’ve succeeded or failed is not enough
- Must provide timely, accurate, specific information about behavior using performance standards as an anchor point
47
Q
Feedback Environment diagram
A
image
48
Q
Practical Issues
A
- Committing to an information based approach to
performance management requires an examination of
the entire system. - Training and Development support is essential
- $$$
49
Q
Performance Management
A
- Performance management and feedback shouldn’t be thought of discrete events that happen once, twice, or four times a year…
- Systematic and continuous process
- More effective as an integrated, simultaneous process
- The employee is an active participant
- PM is broad set of activities aimed at improving employee performance.
- Encompasses the entire process of employee performance evaluation and feedback.
- Includes goal setting and coaching.
- Also includes the creation of development plans to maximize performance.
- Continuous process of identifying, measuring and developing the performance
of individuals and teams and aligning performance with the strategic goals of the organization.
50
Q
Through performance management:
A
- Individual performance expectations are established
- Performance is measured
- Employees are held accountable for their performance
- High performance is recognized and low performance is
addressed - Opportunities for growth and improvement are identified and
pursued
51
Q
How does PM expand on PA?
A
- Goes beyond exclusive emphasis on measurement of performance
to consider what happens before and after performance is
measured - Places performance management at the intersection of I and O
- Goes beyond an individual level focus to consider team
performance and organization level strategic goals - Considers the explicit link between performance and administrative
decisions (reward allocation)
