week 7: King Cnut and the late Anglo-Saxon state

Question 1

summary of Aethelred’s reign

Answer 1

• it has been labelled as a key ebb in Anglo-Saxon kingship, labelled Ethelred the unready
• he failed to deal with the renewed viking threat and his reign has been seen as despotic
• it was a period of intellectual endeavour and local small-scale landowners enjoyed prosperity

Question 2

upheaval after Edgar’s death

Answer 2

• Aelfhere, ealdorman of Mercia as a chief agitator. Aelhere was thought to be motivated by the encroaching power of Oswald and the see of Worcester.
• People opened age old disputed – the sons of Boga of Hemingford claimed an estate at Blutisham on the ground that their uncle’s grandmother had petitioned the land from Edgar.
• Disputes about royal succession was another area for rivalries. Edgar had stressed the legitimacy of his marriage to Aelfthryth, privileging the children of that relationship over his other offspring, Edmund died and Aethelred was just 9.
• AR older half- brother Edward seemed like a more plausible choice but was soon murdered. This cast a long question of Aethelred’s reign, and the Northern Recension of the ASC criticised said actions. -Edward buried at Shaftesbury and became a saint and martyr.

Question 3

were the issues of Aethelred’s reign new or old

Answer 3

• The crimes of Wulfbald - refused to vacate the lands which had formerly belonged to him despite them now being in the kings hand due to forfeiture. He maintained control until his death. Nobles could clearly resist his authority and reject his judgements. Aethelred’s misfortune is that the charters from his reign highlight the problems that appear in Aethelstan’s reign.
• The violence of his reign such as St Brice’s day massacre and the blinding of Aelfgar, son of Ealdorman Aelfric in 993 were not necessarily new phenomenon.
• Edgar issued a decree that thieves should have their eye poked out and their extremities cut off. Violence was a tool inherent in late anglo-saxon governance.

Question 4

When did Aethelred start to consolidate his power?

Answer 4

• Many of the men holding high ranking positions came from influential positions. For example, Aethelwine from EA and Aelfhere from Mercia. AR had little ability to remove these people.
• The latter died in 983, amongst others and it is during the 980s that Aethered’s fully asserts his independence and his mother’s name disappears from charters.
• Produced first law code in 985. He also took church land and distributed them to his lay followers. He was in dispute with the Bishop of Rochester, ravaging the land in 986

Question 5

sources for Aethelred’s reign

Answer 5

-The most detailed accounts come from the C D and E versions of the ASC. It was produced by a London-based author in the early years of Cnut’s reign. He was looking back on the reign knowing it would end in disaster making it seem like destiny. The A which was written during the reign is more positive but less detailed.

Question 6

when did the viking attacks start again?

Answer 6

• Southampton was attacked by a naval force in 980, Cornwall 981 and Portland in 982 – recorde din C ASC.
• Attack in 991 had olaf Tryggvason and maybe Swein Forkbeard. The AS lost at the battle of Bryhtnoth.
• However, The life of Oswald describes numerous Viking casualties suggesting it was near impossible to man their ships in the aftermath.
• Following this defeat, they paid 10,000 to the Vikings but the fleet remained active. In 994, Olaf and Swein attacked London and were paid 16,000 and Olaf baptised.
• It didn’t stop interactions. They signed to become mercenaries and stop other Viking forces. In 1012, the heregeld was introduced – an annual land tax to pay for this.
• They retured to Conrwall in 997 and then moved east.

Question 7

issues with sources about raiding

Answer 7

• Not clear whether the first or others just weren’t recorded. For example, the will of Eadred recorded a large sum of money to redeem damage, but no attack recorded in the year 955.
• C D E record payments increasing. The round numbers and arithmetical progression is suspicious but the numbers are confirmed by II Aethelred. In practice it was probably a mixture of coinage and bullion.

Question 8

other than payments, what were the other responses to viking insurrections?

Answer 8

• Through papal intervention, in 990 a peace agreement was signed between Aethelred and Duke Richard of Normandy such that R couldn’t harbour any of A’s enemies. A married Emma in 1002.
• He increased fortifications – burhs and new stone walls at Cricklade Wiltshire and re-established hillforts at South Cadbury.
• Massacre – all Danes to be slayed, probably targeting recent settlers. Mass grave of 54 decapitated bodies at Ridgeway hill Dorset and isotope analysis suggests Scandinavian origin.
• Aethelred ordered that every 310 hides produce a warship and every 8 hides a helmet and corselet.

Question 9

the raids under Thorkell and Swein

Answer 9

• Thorkell’s army arrived in 1009.
• Eadric had led the palace revolution since the 990s and had become dominant in his court. He was Ealdorman of Mercia in 1007
• In 1012, 48,000 paid and Thorkell committed himself and 45 ships to AR.
• In 1013, Swein came, some say for the revenge of the massacre, money and enmity towards Thorkell. He accepted the surrender of the five boroughs.
• His son, Cnut married Aelfgifu of Northhampton.

Question 10

response to Thorkell and Swein

Answer 10

• Aethelred was brought back from exile from the nobility on the premise that he would complete all of their demands. He murdered Sigeherth and Morcar who had been based in the north.
• Edmund Ironside married the Sigeherth’s widow and went north. This may be due to the threat of Aethelred’s younger son by Emma.
• Edmund and Cnut divided the kingdom, but Edmund died in November and Cnut got the entire kingdom.

Question 11

cultural improvements during this period

Answer 11

• Some of the finest manuscript illuminations belong to this period, including the Benedictional of St Aethelwold or the Ramsey Psalter.
• The majority of old English poetry was written down during this period, even if it wasn’t necessarily composed. It was in part due to the Benedictine reform movement. This enriched the monasteries providing them with the resources to sustain large communities of scholars.
• The upheaval provided the impetus for scholarly enterprise – people sought the route of these issues as well as remedies.

Question 12

Aelfric of Eynsham

Answer 12

• Aelfric of Eynsham dominate the writings seeking to beset England’s problems.
• wrote pastoral letters setting out the responsibilities of secular clergy, adaptations of the bible and Old English grammar and the important catholic homilies.
• He believed the preacher should adapt homilies to suit the needs of the audience and the education of the clergy. Aims to meet the pastoral needs of smaller communities. He appealed to current issues – his homily on the prayer of Moses explicitly contrasted the current situation – disease, starvation and invasion with the prosperity under Mose
• Sigefyrth of Astall requested the Old English summary and an abridged version of the bible – work impacted lay and religious spheres. s.

Question 13

Wulfstan

Answer 13

• Wulfstan wrote law codes for both Aethelred and Cnut. His work also influences perception of these kings. For Wulfstan, a harmonious society would further the promotion of Christianity and ensure the stability of the monarch. The Vikings were a cause of sin.
• The Enham decrees (law in Aethelred’s name) were homiletic about what should be done. Acting in this way would ensure success against the Vikings in conflict. VII Aethelred decreed three days of fasting, general penance and almsgiving.
• Angus Dei pennies were intended as a symbol of peace. Bird with outstretched wings suggesting peace.
• His sermon of the wolf suggests that Aethelred’s exile and Edward’s death were sins with numerous disasters.

Question 14

sources for Cnut’s reign

Answer 14

• Only 36 charters are extant but absent from the 1020s-30s. Only 8 writs and 3 law codes.
• Encomium Emmae Reginae is also present which is an encomium to Cnut and Harthacnut’s reign. It was written by a Flemish monk in the 1040s and does not mentioned her marriage to Aethelred.
• arguably, there are so fews sources due to continuity which didn’t warrant documentation.

Question 15

what were Cnut’s immediate actions when he became king.

Answer 15

• In 1017, he divided England into four parts, keeping Wessex for himself and assigning the other three parts to Thorkell, Eadric and Eric, intending to cement their loyalty. Eadwig son of Aethelred driven to exile in 1017.
• The Encomium suggests that Emma would refuse Cnut’s hand in marriage unless he swore an oath that no son unless by her would become king. She secured the legacy of her future son.
• After collecting tribute of 82,500 in 1018, he disbanded his army keeping only 40 ships.
• In 1018, the chronicle suggests an agreement was made at Oxford, and Wulfstan produced a lawcode which said that all would be ruled by the laws of King Edgar – a continuation of existing practices.

Question 16

Cnut - lack of continuity

Answer 16

• There is a lack of continuity in personnel with Scandinavians advancing to positions of authority and earls were almost exclusively Scandinavian by the late 1020s.
• Leowine of Hwicce was an exception.
• By the early 1030s, this changed. Earl Godwine and Leofric rose to prominence. It created a new aristocracy
• He was a generous religious benefactor. The Encomium describes the gifts he bestowed on the monastery of St Omar in France.
• London was a notable loser in benefactions, unlike Canterbury. London had offered support to Aethelred. He transferred the martyred Aelfheah to Canterbury to mitigate against damaging connotations and to prevent cult resistance.

Question 17

Cnut - continuity

Answer 17

• he didn’t redistribute estates, but used the treasure from 1018 instead. Tofi, his follower held lands in Berkshire, Hertfordshire, Somerset, Surrey and Essex.
• Much of his regime was spent consolidating his influence in Denmark. He faced invasions from the Holy Roman Empire which bordered Denmark. He was present here when Conrad II was crowned in 1027. This forced him to rely on individuals in England.
• at death, Kingdom split between Harthacnut and Harold (S and N) whilst HC was in Denmark in 1035. HC all of England in 1040.

Question 18

how was wealth and social mobility affected by this period?

Answer 18

• ‘the dignities and laws of the people’ – shows how a coerl could attain the status and rights of a thegn if he had five hides of land, a bell house, church, kitchen and gate house. A tradesman had similar rights if he did three sea crossings at his own expense.
• These clarifications were made due to increased social mobility with those lower down the rank ostentatiously emulating their superiors
• The redistribution of land distanced the relationship between local aristocrats and the king. This changed the balance of their relationship.
• Minor nobles used jewellery to give the impression of a higher status. Thegn Gospatric tricked Italian thieves into thinking he was earl Godwine.
• Manuscript illustrations suggest female fashion in this period embraced longer sleeves. For example this was depicted in King Edgar’s in the Regularis Concordia.
• Divide in food between the rich and poor at feasts. Whales prized by the rich. Written sources showed that lords laid claim to any valuable fish e.g. at Tidenham.

Question 19

Wulfstan’s views on social mobility

Answer 19

• Wulfstan wanted to restrict this. in Domesday, 100/5000 people held land more than 40 hides large and very few throughout the entire kingdom – a lesser gentry class with small land holdings.
• They tended to be named after the Thegn (e.g. Wulfricestun for Wulfric). The break-up of multiple estates led to the nucleation of villages.
• For Wulfstan the ownership of land and the holding of royal office was the only way to climb up the social ladder. The laws of the northern people reject that material possessions could too. Silk was used to display status and is recorded in the archaeological record

Question 20

administrative continuity under Cnut

Answer 20

• both kings issued legislation in a similar Old English format by the same scribe, Wulfstan. For example, the Liber Eliensis cites that the archbishop was a friend and advisor to Aethelred and Cnut, writing and compiling legislation – such as VIII Aethelred.
• Both Aethelred and Cnut also levied the geld, the former in 1007 to pay off Viking invaders and the latter 1018 using silver coinage.
• some administrative personnel remained the same - the attestations of Odda stretch from Aethelred’s court to Edward the Confessor’s time, implying that he remained in a position of prominence throughout both reigns
• The ministries listed in charters also suggest that up to eight English men could have operated across both kingships.
• may have been in Cnut’s interests to retain English representation as in doing so he could create a buffer, easing the transition, providing stability to the takeover and limiting resistance.
• He inherited a well-established and elaborate system of governance and therefore there was no real reason to change it.
• Cnut had two wives – Emma and Athelfeluh. The latter was the daughter of an ealdorman, suggesting continuity as he married into the local ruling family. Their relationship is a little bit uncertain. She was more of a concubine (a mistress but more of a formalised system). She rules in Scandinavia in the later period.

Question 21

administrative changes to personnel under Cnut

Answer 21

• In areas such as Mercia, where there had been stanch allegiance to the Anglo-Saxon regime, Cnut redefined territorial boundaries and introduced new sources of authority
• The Danelaw had been ruled by southern kings since 954, but it remained culturally and politically distinct. Areas of earlier Scandinavian settlement were more open to the prospect of a Danish king, however, there was no clear distinction between Englishness and Danishness during this period. p289.
• the Waltham Chronicle states that Tovi was the first ‘staller’ of London. This position had not existed in the late Anglo-Saxon period, but it increased the accountability of local power structures by forcing individuals to stay in closer correspondence with the king
• changes in the Old English aristocracy. In some cases, this was an unfortunate side effect of Viking warfare as it meant that many earls were dispossessed during episodes of violence
• Eric Streona deliberately killed and the Encomiast suggests that ‘he ordered the execution of many noblemen for deceit’

Question 22

ecclesiastical continuity under Cnut.

Answer 22

• church wielded large amounts of power so in boths’ interests to appease churchmen as in doing so his rule could be legitimised.
• Aethelred who was a particularly religious monarch, stressed royal piety and a penitential style of kingship. For example, the law code VII Aethelred issued at bath in 1009 was devoted to marshalling penitential gestures and Aethelred also minted the Agnus Dei pennies which were inscribed with Christian symbolism.
• Cnut attended the coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor, Conrad II, but Archbishop Wulfstan publicly preached his acceptance of Cnut.
• helped to establish ‘archiepiscopal autonomy’ in Kent. For example, he increased the powers of the Archbishop of Canterbury, allowing him to operate instead of a local ealdorman in the shire and hundred courts. - both the North of England (where Wulfstan operated from), as well as the south of England (where the Archbishop of Canterbury was based) experienced this continuity
• liber vitae portrait, Cnut and Emma are offering up a giant cross.

Question 23

ecclesiastical change under Cnut

Answer 23

• in the region’s most prone to resistance, Cnut made a deliberate effort to deplete church resources. The Eastern Danelaw had expressed considerable support for Anglo-Saxon monarchs and therefore local bishoprics underwent large extractions of wealth, including the thirty-hide manor of Southminster in Essex as well as the Monastery at St Pauls.
• Cnut soon restored parts of the Eastern Danelaw, building a stone church at Assandun and Bury St Edmund’s - a temporary phenomenon.
• due to the fragmentation of larger estates which created a new class of land holding individuals, there was an increase in the number of small, local churches. This meant that the church started to play a much more intimate role in the lives of the surrounding community.
• whilst graveyard burials had occurred before the eleventh century, it became much more common procedure during the reign of Cnut, and this suggests that more people were being served by the church.
• was this actually because of Cnut?

Question 24

administrative changes under Cnut

Answer 24

• he had New Minster as his base whereas before it had been London under Aethelred.
• became an international king in more than one country

Question 25

How do Nordic Poems act as a source for this period?

Answer 25

• Poems emphasise his prowess and that Cnut is his father’s son not another Anglo-Saxon King.
• They emphasise how he destroyed Edgar and his reign. This is very different to the law codes which continue Edgar’s prosperity.
• This may be because the poems were in Old Norse and therefore could not be understood by the English. It may be therefore a bit like an inside joke.
• They may also have been read at feasts and therefore this court culture and in this side of life they were more concerned about bolstering the image.
• The fact that it was composed in Winchester, does, however, suggest that there may have been an audience to whom Norse symbols would resound with.

Question 26

why is 1016 not remember to the same extent as 1066?

Answer 26

• The Norman impact was more prolonged. It was not one king and then a reversion back to a Wessex born king. This meant that it had an intergenerational effect
• The Scandinavian impact happened over a number of different stages. Firstly, there was raiding, then settlement and then finally Cnut became king of England as a whole. There was less of a single circumstance/ point of invasion which people can cling on to.
• Castles left a more visible mark on the landscape.

Question 27

Aethelred’s exile

Answer 27

• returned when Swein died.
• He returned during Lent and this may have added poignancy to his return by suggesting that both him and the English people had regrets to repent fo

Question 28

Aethelred’s son

Answer 28

• His eldest son Aethelstan died in 1014
• Certain hopes had been placed on Aethelstan’s shoulders (e.g. because he was given the sword of Offa as a family heirloom).

Question 29

changes to diplomas

Answer 29

-There are 35 diplomas which survive from the 19 years of Cnut’s reign.
-113 survive from the 38 years of Aethelred’s reign and the 180 from the 18 years of Edgar’s reign.
-There are 64 issues in the name of Edward the Confessor across 24 years.
Whilst there may be archaeological barriers to finding these charters, it suggests that after 1010, the diploma declined markedly in importance.

Question 30

why did Cnut conquer England?

Answer 30

• Svein’s activities had opened new avenues of income. (previously Harald Bluetooth’s coins had been thin and light).
• German and English silver came into Denmark in greater quantities from around 990. P40. they were the victims of their own success
• as revenge for the Massacre.

Question 31

was government stable and effective?

Answer 31

• Political unification had connected the centres to the localities via a system of burhs and shire courts under the supervision of earls, bishops and sheriffs. The ability to legislate for the nation, raise armies, collect land tax and regular coinage suggest effective governance.
• Two invasions suggest it may have been a great prize but less robust with local power still vested in aristocratic families.