week 6: Scandinavian raids and settlement

Question 1

issues with sources from the Alfredian period

Answer 1

• most sources come from the West Saxons, such as the ASC, probably compiled by Alfred’s court
• this offers an essentially West Saxon perspective and means that the history of other kingdoms is of secondary concern.
• Events in Northumbria, other than the fall of York in 867 are largely un-noted.
• they seem to have selectively omitted the raids on Wessex (e.g. the one on Southampton recorded by continental sources in 842.)
• lack of written material means vikings have been viewed through the eyes of the victim

Question 2

the beginning of the viking age

Answer 2

• following the attack on Lindisfarne in 793, Alcuin wrote that he believed it was as punishment for the isis of fornication, adultery, incest, greed, robbery and violence.
• from 835 onwards, raids are recorded in the ASC every year.
• Trade meant that moveable wealth was now more readily available and this made it attractive for viking raids. They tended to target monasteries not emporia as they were easily accessible, wealthy and poorly defended.
• books, such as the Codes Aureus were ransomed by Ealdorman Alfred.
• Alcuin believed that this was pagans doing so for religious reasoning
• political centralisation in Scandinavia led to infighting and need for wealth to win people over.

Question 3

how did the Wessex dynasty gain supremacy?

Answer 3

• in 825, the West Saxons defeated Mercia at the battle of Wroughton, taking control of Kent.
• Mercian hegemony declined due to dynastic instability. Apart from Cenwulf and Berhtwulf, no Mercians were succeeded by a close family member. Three different dynasties were vying for control (the C, B and W dynasty)
• the Wessex dynasty sought new methods of benefaction. Alfred married Ealswith, daughter of Mercian nobleman Aethelred Mucel in 868. Wiglaf in charters from the 830s appears as a fully independent ruler, but no coins were minted in his name after 829.
• the ASC added Ecgbert to Bede’s list of overlords.
• Eardwulf was exiled on the continent but Charlemagne’s legates helped him regain control of Northumbria (sign of prestige). His son Earned ruled for thirty years but submitted to Ecgbert of Wessex in 829. Ine of Earned’s pennies was found at Trewiddle perhaps reflecting a tribute payment to Ecgbert’s overlordship.

Question 4

why did the West Saxons achieved supremacy?

Answer 4

• differing structure of rule. Ealdormen operated in all the different kingdoms, but the nature of their administration varied.
• the Ealdormen operated more like a federation, with ealdormen being tied to royal dynasties and commanding people not just areas whereas in Wessex they appear more like royal officials, with more centralisation. The kings ministry at a lower level were also closely connected to him, acting as Reeves or military retinue as a route to ealdorman (Ealhberg became ealdorman in Kent but had previously served Aethelwulf of Wessex as a steward
• they could expect a role in royal office making rebellion costly.
• Wessex made regular visits to their territories and promoted local Kentish nobility as seen above not ruling from a distance like in Mercia.
• Ecgbert and Aethelwulf appointed sons as sub-kings in Kent.

Question 5

the great heathen army

Answer 5

• Before they were fleets of 30/35 ships but the fleet that attacked Canterbury in 851 there were 350 ships. This is consistent with raids of 260 ships to France. this was also the first year that they overwintered.
• they were more intent on settlement than just raiding
• they made peace with the East Angles receiving horses and supplies.
• The North was easier to conquer due to civil unrest. The Northumbrians had disposed Osberht with Aelle but the vikings killed both claimants in 867.
• Alfred was defeated by the vikings as Wilton and then made peace with them by the Alfred/Guthrum treaty if they left Wessex
• Alfred’s victory at Edington in 878 only led to the defeat of one Viking army not the vikings. It also only guaranteed the safety of his kingdom not England

Question 6

Alfred the Great educational reform

Answer 6

• Alfred wanted to rule through the written word and closely resembles continental kings in this sense.
• he was the first West Saxon king to issue a law code since Ine. It drew upon Offa, Ine and Aethelbert. He did introduce a univerasal oath of loyalty sworn by his subjects and there were christian elements. For example, mosaic law was included and there were 120 chapter which corresponded to the reputed age of Moses.
• the work of Asser and ASC document his reign. The wealth of written material leads many to over-emphasis his differences from other rulers.
• he translated work such as Gregory the Great’s pastoral care, Augustine’s soliloquies and the first 50 psalms. There is a consistency across these texts which speaks to a shared authorial agenda.
• some, such as the pastoral care was translated into Old English by Bishop Werferth, others by Alfred himself.

Question 7

why did Alfred introduce educational reforms?

Answer 7

• viking raids were seen as a result of English sins and therefore divine protection was needed not just fortifications.
• Edward was challenged by Aethelwold, Aethelred’s son for the throne in 899.
• Alfred being the youngest son may have been destined for the church, Asser suggests his childhood was spent learning the divine office and visiting religious sites. Asser describes a young Alfred unable to restrain himself from sexual desires. Alfred’s religiosity seems to stem from a man destined for secular office but unaware of the pitfalls of such a path.

Question 8

Alfred’s military reforms

Answer 8

• Strength in warfare came down to the tactics used.
• The Vikings were used to mobile raids and plundering but were less equipped for pitched battles. Alfred divided his army into two, half on service and half at home. This created a permanent standing army which could be deployed immediately when needed whilst still maintaining defensive capabilities.
• He also created a network of fortified Burhs. Fortifications had been used but not over the same geographical area. the location need major transport routes limited Viking mobility.
• 27,000 required to defend the burhs as well as construction expenses. This but a strain on the subjects.

Question 9

How did the Wessex dynasty contribute to Alfred’s reign?

Answer 9

• In 853 Aethelwulf sent the infant Alfred to Rome where he was consecrated by Pope Leo IV – ASC and Asser. He did not want Alfred to be excluded from the possibility of royal succession and saw papal blessing as a means of furthering this.
• There were tensions within the dynasty. Whilst Aethelwulf was on pilgrimage, Aethelbald rebelled and seized the West Saxon throne in 856 meaning it was divided on AW return. Following his father’s death he married Judith, Charles the Bald’s son suggesting prestige of a union with her.

Question 10

Alfred’s economic reforms

Answer 10

• In 875, he introduced the cross and lozenge type of coinage. It restored weight and coinage and introduced classically roman designs. One of the earliest had an inscription Rex SM – king of Saxons and Mercians.
• Ceowulf II reformed in tandem but he died in the 870s, succeeded by Aethelred of Mercia who recognised Alfred’s overlordship, never claiming the title of king.
• He married his daughter. In 886 he had the authority of rebuilding London, rebuilding old Roman walls.

Question 11

economic changes during these changes to the Anglo-Saxons kingdom

Answer 11

• The volume of coinage circulating in the south Humbrian dynasties decreased when Mercia broke up. The volume of coinage in Northumbria increased from the 830s-40s but of low-value. This suggests a change in the nature of ninth century economy and fluctuating levels of circulation.
• The size of the Lundenwic emporia was shrinking with only three new buildings being constructed at Covent Garden after 770. The main north-south road wasn’t resurfaced in the ninth century. Scrap iron and slags does suggest activity did continue, albeit at a diminished scale.
• Ipswich Ware pottery became more dominance suggesting regions further south became more important. At Hamwic, Southampton, no new buildings were constructed from the ninth century onwards.
• The east Anglican mint increased in productivity accounting for one third of the coinage found in south Humbria. Locally minted coins account for three quarters of the total found in EA.
• The Vikings are one reason for decline. They certainly targeted London in 842 and 851 and Hamwic in 840. The ditch constructed at Lundenwic also suggests cause for concern. Piracy may also have been a cause for concern, Chalremagne established a naval force for the northern coast. Aldwuld the papal legate who accompanied Eardwulf back to Northumbria was kidnapped by pirates when returning to the continent.
• Already in decline before the first attack. At Dorested the salting of the river may account for its abandonment.

Question 12

evidence that there was not economic decline

Answer 12

• Kings tried to revive trade. at c844, Mercian King Berhtwulf confirmed the exemption from toll at London granted to the bishopric of Rochester by king Aethelbald in 733. Suggest trying to re-establish trade at new site away from lundenwic.
• Charters from Canterbury reveal by-laws stipulating minimum distance between buildings was two feet to allow the runoff of rainwater suggesting a densely populated area with land at a premium. Canterbury was the most important and productive of the south-Humbrian mints, accounting for half the coins found in that region

Question 13

religion and church

Answer 13

-By 871, no one south of the Thames could understand the liturgy or translate Latin into English. Asser did not believe that they followed a traditional monastic rule.
-Archbishop Fulco of Rheims added the ending of regular church councils and synods (Last recorded Synod held in South-Humbrian province was November 845)
Charters still started to be produced by the standard of scripture had declined.Most documents produced at Canterbury in the ninth century were done so in Old English not Latin (could not find competent Latin scribes).
-Good contacts with other Christian communities were maintained. In the 850s, Lupus abbot of Ferrieres wrote to Archbishop Wigmund seeking to renew ties established by Alcuin.
-Decline in learning did not necessarily mean a decline in lay devotion. At Repton, the crypt was remodelled with the construction of stone vaults. The religious benefaction of lay magnates at Kent shows a continued enthusiasm among the laity for the opportunities offered by Christianity. Charters show nobles making arrangements for the disposal of their properties should go on pilgrimage to Rome.
-This may have been motivated by the Vikings to gain divine favour. King Aethelwulf of Wessex sent one of his sons on pilgrimage to Rome. The fact that this was done for personal benefit is supported by the ‘second decimination’ – he freed a tenth of certain lands in the kingdom in response for the church reciting psalms for the king.

Question 14

how did the viking raids impact the church?

Answer 14

• The disappearance of religious institutions away from monastic life (now only housing clerks) may account for their disappearance. The monastery at Madehamstede is described post conquest as being burnt by Vikings yet 9th and 10th centiry sources suggest it just came under lay lordship.
• Bishops of Worcester and Winchester were forced to lease out their estates in order to meet the shared payments required to pay off the Vikings. In 811, a grant to AB Wulfred of Canterbury included the obligation to repair damaged fortifications by the Vikings.
• The need for protection may have accelerated secularisation of the church as they needed help from lords. If they relocated, they needed help from lords to maintain the estate

Question 15

how did viking settlement lead to the meshing of culture?

Answer 15

• the detection of metalwork suggests that Anglo-Saxon accessories were modified to incorporate Scandinavian elements of design. The Trefold Brooch originally from Scandinavia started to incorporate indigenous features such as the flat Anglo-saxon profile
• artistic design seems to be modified rather than replaced suggesting partial change.
• The so-called Grimston Hybrid place names suggest that the two cultures were forming a new identity as it incorporated the Old English ‘tun’ with a range of Norse personal names.
• onomastic evidence may only reveal someone’s ethnicity at a very superficial level, not how they identify more deeply.
• Most of the evidence we have to support our study of personal names also comes from the Domesday book of 1086, published over 100 years after the period of study. This creates inconveniences when trying to understand the extent of Viking diaspora as by this point, a large number of Norse personal names may have vanished due to intermarriage, thus leading to an underestimate of change

Question 16

How did women play a part in the meshing of cultures?

Answer 16

• the modification of female dress suggests they influenced artistic tradition.
• instead of raiding, they married and could have an inter-generational effect. by 1086, the Domesday Book recorded 50% of personal names in Cheshire deriving from the Scandinavian language. Oral communication must have occurred between Scandinavian and English people during their day-to-day lives.

Question 17

did Scandinavian invaders change religion?

Answer 17

• the ASC records raids from ’ravages of heathen men’, stripping the church of its wealth. The absence of manuscripts and charters also attests to this.
• increase in the number of Anglo-Saxon burials with grave goods – a traditionally Scandinavian custom. This might suggest that as the Scandinavians invaded England, they spread their religious affinities and encouraged the English people to convert to paganism.
• this process may have occurred is by incorporating Norse mythology on to Christian stone sculpture, such as the Middleton Cross in Yorkshire, as this would allow Scandinavian communities to explain pagan messages through Christian motifs.
• Bishoprics, such as the one which had previously existed at Leicester, declined during this period – clear evidence that settlement had changed aspects of English society.
• Wulfstan does collaborate, such as with Olaf, but this then reverts back to Edmund.

Question 18

vikings didn’t change religion

Answer 18

• Archaeological finds suggest that the majority of ‘pagan-style’ burials were confined to the male gender, containing weapons and horses, which offer a clear expression of masculinity to display signs of power in an increasingly competitive environment.
• The depletion of church resources, generally attributed to Scandinavian settlement, needs to be seen in the wider context of Viking raiding as a whole; it is entirely likely that the English church would not have suffered as significant loses had Anglo-Saxon kings not invested so much wealth into monasteries during the previous decades as there would have been less of an economic incentive to do so.
• it does not seem to be in Scandinavian interests to alter the religious contours of English society as by converting to Christianity, many Viking kings could use the church as a means of legitimising their claim to power.
• For example, during the 10th century, Guthrum (leader of the Viking army) converted to Christianity, using King Alfred as his baptismal sponsor. As part of this process he also adopted the name of Aethelstan, outwardly demonstrating his commitment to the Christian faith. May have le to the Alfred/Guthrum treaty which formally established the Danelaw as a distinct territory. -At the very highest levels, therefore, Scandinavians embraced Christianity rather than trying to undermine it, and in the lower ranks of society they were happy to co-exist alongside indigenous Christians.

Question 19

How did Scandinavian settlement change English politics?

Answer 19

• following W at Eddisbury in 878 Alfred pursued a policy of appeasement by signing a treaty with Guthrum in c880. This established separate spheres of authority by outlining the parameters of the Danelaw and allowing Alfred the opportunity for further territorial expansion into West Mercia and Kent. This created a ‘legal duality’
• the evidence we have for Danes following ‘their own’ laws is from a law of Edgar’s (IV Edgar), where he says “secular rights [are to] be in force among the Danes according to as good laws as they can best decide on”. kings at least expressed tolerance for Danish laws and legal practices, whether that was true on the ground or not.
• catalysed the political unification of the West Saxon dynasty, motivated by Anglo-Scandinavian power struggles and the prospect of foreign domination. Viking raids and settlement enabled Alfred to imagine and promote an opposing ‘Other’, first in the destructive raiders and then in the people of the Danish, against which Englishness could be defined.
• military and educational reform
• political fragmentation occurred in the Danelaw. This created a confederacy of five administrative units, all of which differed slightly in their political nature.
• Scandinavian rulers modelled themselves on Anglo-Saxon styles of kingship. For example, they used written laws and minted coins, albeit of a ‘lighter’ and ‘inferior’ calibre.

Question 20

Norse place names

Answer 20

• The distribution of Anglo-Saxon place names fits well with where they invaded.
• We cannot be sure when they were first coined (first in Domesday book) and they may have been coined because they were fashionable because of elite presence of Norse speakers.
• (David Parsons) says they are most likely to be coined by speakers of Old Norse in Norse environments as the names are combined with Norse not Old English.

Question 21

how did the vikings affect urban life and the economy?

Answer 21

• Large hoards (e.g. silverhoards). Many come from around the Irish sea regions. suggesting wealth generated through Dublin and the selling of slaves.
• In Ireland, coastal settlements are all urban based in Scotland there are rural market towns
• The Danelaw had a rapid period of urban growth. For example, in York. This has to do with the legacy of the great army which brought together a large number of people. They have been likened to towns on the move.
• They extended the transport and trading networks from which the area that the British Isle shad trade with. It opened up Icelandic and Byzantine trading routes which was was important for silver flows. Excavations at copper-gate revealed a booming economy. For example, antler and wood workings, byzantine silk caps and amber pendants.
• Ramparts were developed at Wareham and Oxfords, where there are surviving mounds and dykes. This suggests a system of defence to enclose places. This created a hotspot for goods and markets.

Question 22

How did viking invasions affect lordship?

Answer 22

• In the Domesday book, you get large numbers of free peasants who don’t owe obligations to a lord. This must be Scandinavian descendants who had greater freedom.
• may reflect break-up of lots of estates as well as the reorganisation of land which would have enabled more people to hold land on independent terms not being obligated to a lord.

Question 23

which regions experienced economic growth?

Answer 23

• you have to decouple the political power centres from actual economic growth.
• The coasts facing outside to external economic stimuli experienced the most growth. We can start to measure this by the number of moneyers in towns. York, Lincoln and London are very significant. The Largest mints are overwhelmingly to the east of England.

Question 24

how did viking raids impact the countryside?

Answer 24

• more productive and this facilitated urbanisation
• Bede suggests that Aiden travels through rural and urban places. For him, an urban place was a place with a big church. As commercial functions grew, this changed.
• Rural reorientation occurred due to the breakup of the complex estates after the 940s. Wulfric’s buys 18 satellite spaces which are self-functioning.
• The origins of nucleated villages date to this period. Villages with formal boundaries were a product of the post-conquest period. However, they were heading in this direction already.
• They are ploughing in ridge and furrow manner, suggesting a highly developed open field system.
• Roman techniques of surveying land were re-introduced.
• Areas become nucleated as the surrounding fields start to develop into communal farming areas.
• There is increasing social hierarchisation. From the 10th century onwards, we see aristocratic residences. Linear buildings become more common. Buildings contain separate rooms and ensuite facilities. The buildings are big.

Question 25

the nature of Scandinavian settlement?

Answer 25

• Identities are shaped by material culture, social interactions and political affiliations. There was not a simple transplant of identity but Anglo-Scandinavian. It developed in situ in Britain not independently and was then imported.
• Vikings were heterogeneous, with different warbands operating on the continent or other areas for many campaign seasons at a time, appropriating new dimensions of nationality and loyalty to their identity.
• Welsh and Irish sources record the expulsion of Vikings from the Dublin area in the early 10th century with some crossing the Irish sea to Cumbria. They are described as Hiberno-Norse but there wasn’t necessarily a sharp distinction between them and the Danes.
• The five boroughs are refereced in the chronicle – Leicester, Lincolnshire, Nottingham, Stamford and Derby but what these identities meant in person is difficult to discern.
• The history of St Cuthbert suggests Guthred was raised from the Viking army by a visionary intercession of Cuthbert. In Gratitude, Guthred granted Cuthbert’s community land between the Rivers Tyne and Wear. He got saintly approval to the throne. Guthfrith was buried in the York minister in 895.
• Drift geology allows allows areas of agricultural productivity to be recognised. Grimston Hybrids tend to be on areas of prime agricultural land, with names with by or thorp more marginal. Grimston may suggest early stages of settlement, representing the takeover of AS who were already positioned on the best sites.

Question 26

what does material culture reveal about Scandinavian settlement?

Answer 26

• New iconography was used on the large number of settlements. The hogback developed (curved house-shaped grave covers, found in much of Northern England).They represent a new monument type but seem to have been inspired by Ranvaik Hedda Stone at Peterborough.
• The Gosforth cross combines a crucifix with a figure standing by the jaws of a vast create (representing the God Vitharr). Stone sculpture is largely absent from S during this period suggesting this is a native tradition.
• Towns under Scandinavian occupation do not seem to have developed more extensive trading links than those outside of it (trade in London dominated with links to Oxfordshire).
• Simy Folds is a group of farmsteads in Durham which are characteristically Scandinavian (includes long, narrow buildings with rounded corners and turf foundation). Carbon dating suggests between 7-11th, but this isn’t definitive.

Question 27

what does genetic analysis reveal about Scandinavian settlement?

Answer 27

• The east midlands could be provided into 5 different subgroups, genetically stratified. Derbyshire is genetically distinct but has likeness to Denmark. They may tells us little about initial settlement and more about the success of immigrant populations.
• Isotope analysis can show us which elements are present in bodily remains (e.g. tooth enamel). This can show where an individual grew up

Question 28

How did Edward become King?

Answer 28

• It is unclear how much Edward the Elder inherited. He faced rivalry from Aethelwold. It is much more complex than the story recorded in the ASC. Aethelwold seized Wimborne and Christchurch before Edward was crowned suggesting he had support and his actions a play for the throne. Danish army in N submitted to him and by 903 he had persuaded the Danish army in EA to break peace with Edward. Both kings harried parts of the other’s territory.

Question 29

how did Edward interact with Mercia?

Answer 29

• Charters show Aethelred of Mercia had submitted to Alfred’s over-lordship but not Edward’s. He is described as holding, governing and defending the sole rule of the Mercians.
• The Annals of Aethelflaed represent her pursuing her own policies and strategies against the enemies of Mercia. She follows a Mercian tradition of women wielding more power than in other kingdoms.
• The Mercian Register present AF acting independently and ASC makes no mention of AF until her death. If she had had a son, there may have been more resistance.
• A and A built church at Gloucester where they were buried, and St Oswald’s relics moved. – is this a royal mausoleum-However, coins were only minted in Edward’s name and he could command both the Wessex and Mercian armies, sending them into Northumbria to ravage it in 909.

Question 30

the expansion of Wessex under Edward

Answer 30

• Death of Aethelred, Edward got control of London and his sister controlled English Mercia. Edward, in his law-codes made reference to peace agreements and the ASC said this was done out of necessity with EA. They purchased lands in Viking territory (e.g. Bedfordshire), starting relatively peacefully
• In 909, armies were sent to ravage the area. in 920 he travelled to Bakewell (Derbyshire) and ordered the construction of a burh.
• Burh at Hertford in 911 to check Danish advances. By 918, all Viking armies south of the Humber had submitted to either of the two. AF Derby and Leicester, Edward 6 others.
• What submissions actually meant is problematic. From 910-24, E issued no charters. If submissions were accompanied by the redistribution of land to his followers, it is not recorded.
• Moneyers who had produced coins in Viking controlled burhs did so now in Edward’s name but this suggests he could not dismantle governmental systems already in place.

Question 31

The conquest of Northumbria

Answer 31

• Agreement between Aethelstan and Sihtric about marriage occurred at Tamworth (deep in AS kingdom suggesting not equal).
• In 934 he ravaged Scotland by land and sea and then the battle of Brunanburh in 937.
• Ealdred of Bamburgh sought refuge with Constantin I of Scotland and the AB cooperated with Scandinavian leaders in York.
• Aethelstan visited St Cuthbert’s shrine in 934 to cultivate community support, presenting two illuminated manuscripts.
• When Edmund came to power, Olaf Guthfrithsson seized control of the five boroughs and he was unable to drive them out until Olaf’s death in 942 and Northumbria in 944.
• Eadred’s controlled the north following Eric Bloodaxe being drive out in 954.
• After Eadred, the kingdom divided but it was re-unified in 959 by Edgar before being divided again in 1016 and 1030.
• Chance and luck influenced unification.

Question 32

ruling in the 10th century

Answer 32

• AS and Edgar claimed to have pan-British overlordship, demanding tribute from British client kings and forming close ties with continental rulers (e.g. Ottonian emperors of Germany). AS intervened in continental affairs. Louis IV.
• In 973, Edgar and his wife were coronated at Bath. Edgar was presented above all the kings in Britain and Bath was used to draw on links with Rome.
• Conquests against the Vikings created a common purpose and foe as well as the prospect of a rich reward for loyalty.

Question 33

how did legal activity change in the tenth century?

Answer 33

• Legal activity in the 10th century increased, becoming almost a routine part of royal business. Kings had more opportunities to intervene in the lives of their subjects.
• Laws became a method of communication, demonstrating negotiation and shared aims. They could be direct to royal agents or addressed to the community for specific problems, such as the plague. II Aethelstan records the administration of justice, the apprehension of thieves, the functioning of ordeal, the minting of coins and the purchasing of livestock at Grately.
• Council at Thundersfield imposed the death penalty for anyone who committed theft. This was in response to peoples’ failure to uphold Grately, showing the king would respond to previous pronouncements.
• III AEthelstan is a response to the nobles and bishops of Kent and VI Aethelstan opens with details of the arrangement for the preservation of order and harmony put in place by the peace guild of London. This shows negotiations and compromises shapes the law.

Question 34

how did local governing change during the 10th century?

Answer 34

• Hundreds, as documented in the hundred ordinance could vary in size. According to this code, the hundred court met once a month or face a 30-shilling fine. Both Edward and Alfed make reference to local public meetings. They also seemed to be based on ancient landmarks the Guthlaxton Wapentake met at Fosse Way and got its name from a roman milestone.
• The hundred ordinance suggests more royal oversight.
• Shires were mentioned by Ine, corresponding to spheres of an Ealdorman. Aethelstan suggests reeves needed to obtain pledges from their own shire that they could abide by the Grately decrees. Meetings under an ealdorman are referred to in Alfred’s codes but in III Edgar there is an explicit reference to shire courts who should meet twice a year.
• Shires tended to be centred around burhs. Staffordshire from Stafford and Cheshire from Chester.
• Under Edgar the system of hundred was fully formed and shire courts start to function, featuring in law-codes and local disputes. He reformed coinage such that there was a single one with the same design across all of England.
• Edgar’s successors introduced a new design every 6 years. The grately code legislated for this but didn’t achieve it. most sources are normative maybe obscuring regional diversity in practice

Question 35

how did feats contribute to ruling?

Answer 35

-Written sources emphasise how royal feasts were arenas where the loyalty of leading nobles could be cultivated and a sense of common identity inculcated. They tended to happen in Wessex, people had to travel showing authority of the king. They were used for the ritualised crown wearing of King Edgar.

Question 36

what happened to church reform during the 10th century?

Answer 36

• The Benedictine reforms happened during the 10th century, a leading figure being Dunsten, AB of Canterbury, Aethelwold bishop of York and Oswald bishop of Worcester.
• The three central figures had different understandings of reform. AW was the most extreme. He had Edgar’s backing, seeking papal backing and providing appropriate force through Wulfstan of Dalham.
• Much of what is known about these reforms comes from later writings (Aethelwold did write some stuff justifying them).
• Most religious institutions seemed to be clerical not monastic but there were some (e.g. Oda AB of C is described by Byrhtferth as a professed monk).
• Bishop Cenwald was also known for travelling extensively on the continent and visited numerous monasteries such as those in Switzerland and Germany.
• The monastery at Fleury was an important centre for reform and Oda had links with this institution, taking monastic vows there.

Question 37

Dunstan’s role in reform

Answer 37

• Dunstan and his work at Glastonbury is seen as a starting point of reform. He did so in line with Benedictine precepts but didn’t impose strict observance on all inmates. Aethelwold eventually left and this may be why.
• Dunstan, in exile, spent time in Flanders at the Monastery of St Peter’s. Edgar summoned him back as king and appointed him bishop of Worcester and then London and eventually Canterbury in 959. Edgar’s reign represented a high point when monasteries were re-established and reformed. AW refounded some in EA.

Question 38

Oswald and Dunstan’s approach to reform

Answer 38

• Oswald and Dunstan favoured more gradualist strategies. Records of over 70 leases of land made by Oswald between 963 and 991 have been preserved and the witness lists record no dramatic changes of personnel (unlike expulsion of clerks at New Minster).
• From the 970s, there is a preference for those that had taken monastic vows for positions such as dean. He constructed a separate monastic foundation, St Mary’s, within Worcester cathedral’s precincts. This suggests changes happened in situ with ongoing practices.-
• AW promoted OE as a way of educating those lacking in Latin proficiency. They had Winchester-style decoration, influenced by Carolingian designs with florid, vegetal motifs.

Question 39

how did Edgar influence reform?

Answer 39

• Edgar wanted uniformity so summoned a council at Winchester in the early 970s, issuing the Regularis Concordia containing reform aims.
• It places royal authority at the centre of the reform, with the king or queen as overseer of the monastery. Monasteries needed to pay for the king
• parallels to Bede’s letter to Ecgbert and the 747 Council of Clovesho).
• Less reform in the north. This may show how tightly they were bound with royal power, needing Edgar’s backing to make progress.

Question 40

others religious changes during this period

Answer 40

• Nobles started to build smaller, local churches. This was to display status. law-codes in the 10th century standardised their provision of pastoral care.
• Edgar specifies where churches are to be due, split between old churches and new manorial ones (a third paid to the new one if it has a church with a graveyard but no graveyard then the nobleman must pay out of his remaining 9/10 of his income) Aethelstan just says place where they are ‘legally due’.
• Aethelred II legislates for chief minsters, smaller minsters and field churches.