week 4: Expanding Kingdoms

Question 1

what does king of the English mean?

Answer 1

-all those who accepted the rule of the king of England not all who lived in the territory and spoke the language.

Question 2

How did Alfred expand his kingdom?

Answer 2

• the ASC describes Alfred as the first king of all those not under Danish rule. Asser said he was king of the Anglo-Saxons as he brought together the previous Anglian and Saxon kingdoms.
• Aethelred of Mercia, thought labelled as an ealdorman in Mercian and Wessex sources still operated as a king.
• he laid the foundations for a conglomerate kingdom under West Saxon rulership.
• he was the first English over-lord to be recognised by all Welsh kings.
• Signed a treaty with Guthrum, establishing the Danelaw as a separate entity in 878.

Question 3

how did Edward expand and unite kingdoms?

Answer 3

• Edward brokered a treaty of mutual protection in 920 including the kings of Alba and Strathclyde and Ragnall the viking ruler of Northumbria. However, Ragnall continued to have currency in Northern times, suggesting not conclusive.
• Edward the elder took EA and the midlands with the help of his sister Aethelflaed.
• kingdom divided after Edward’s tenure and this suggests he didn’t create a stable edifice. Some say that by creating two separate kingdoms it prevented succession instability and dynastic struggles. Many people knew charlmagne (offa in contact with his daughter) and he split it between his two sons.

Question 4

how did Aethelstan expand and unite kingdoms?

Answer 4

-following ETE death, Aethelstan and his half brother Aethelwold succeeded to the two kingdoms of Wessex and Mercia, respectively
-after the latter’s untimely death, Aethelstan united them under his jurisdiction. He brokered a marriage between his sister and Sihtric, the Scandinavian king. When he died in 927, Aethelstan was in a better position to harness the northern power vacuum.
-Peter, a royal clerk, suggests in Carta Dirige Gressus that England was now made whole (it is a typical conceit where the poem instructs his letter to transverse the kingdom).
-Aethelstan added York and Northumbria, ruling over segments of all the major kingdoms.
-his school at Westminster established a standardised version of Old English. He established regular meetings of the Great Council and this led to the English getting a shared sense of how justice should be administered.
-centralised royal writing office for charters in 920
-regional and diplomatic connections diversified. Acted as foster father to Hakon, son of Harald fair hair of Norway and he wad called upon for military support during Louis IV accession the the throne of west Francia.
-He standardised coinage using the Grately Code which banned foreign mints
-it was moulded by Christian morality and responsible office holding. Almsgiving and offerings to Rome became obligatory.
Following defeat against a Viking army at Maldon (death of Eadlroman Brihtnoth), the English paid off the enemy with 10,000.

Question 5

how did the kingdom of Alba come about?

Answer 5

• Constantine II was Pictish king in 789 and then Dal Riata in 811. His son didn’t inherit a unified kingdom so it seemed to be a personal process.
• He established an entente between the dynasty and the church with Bishop Cellach in 906. There is also an inscription to him on the Dupplin Cross, Perthshire suggesting a close relationship with the church.
• Kennith Macalpine came from Dal Riata and conquered the picts, ruling the region from 842. He is referred to in the latin chronicles of the kings of Alba which covers the reign of 12 kings of Pictland.
• after 900, it was referred to as Alba under the leadership of Donald.
• pictish material culture disappears but this may be due to a terminological change (similar territories and strongholds).
• may have happened due to Viking incursions encouraging refugees to seek a home further east (Monks of Iona relocated to Dunkeld - relics of St Columba) There are also Albanian kings with old-Norse names such as Ildulb in 954

Question 6

the relationship between Alba and neighbouring territories

Answer 6

• in 920, ASC says that the king of the Scottas recognised Edward the Elder as overlord.
• in 927 Constantine made an oath to Aethelstan at Eadmont Bridge and then he was invaded by him in 934 perhaps to assert dominance or because he wasn’t upholding the tenants of the oath
• in 937 he made an alliance with Dublin and Strathclyde to challenge Aethelstan.
• after an 870 viking Attack, SW Scotland changed its identity and started to be referred ti as strathclyde welsh in 875 and Cumberland in 920. Monumental stones suggest the focus of the region was around the Clyde valley.
• the region swore allegiance to Edward the Elder in 920 but joined the alliance against Aethelstan in 937.
• Alba tried to dominate the area and they fought with alba against the Earl of Northumbria in 1018.

Question 7

sources for Alba

Answer 7

• From the 8th century onwards most symbols and scenes are found on crosses. For example, Sueno’s stone, Forres. They could be attached to royal inauguration.
• Burghead, Moray, evidence of a Pictish long house. This is implicit of domestic architecture. There was also a coin of Alfred the Great. This allows them to date. It is pierced suggesting it was worn as a display of wealth. Moray was a unit of greater Alba
• Rhynie, Aberdeenshire was based on an old Iron age hill fort, show symbolic stones, graves, Shards of Roman wine amphorae, sherds of drinking vessels from the continent.
• some say Gaelic survived due to strong ecclesiastical influences and the Gaelic speaking foundations of the monastery at Iona.

Question 8

the foundations of Welsh Kingdoms

Answer 8

• still a plurality of kingdoms at the end of this period, it didn’t unite in the same way.
• this is suggesting that unification was normative. France didn’t unite and therefore it may be anachronistic to assume this was destiny.
• There were however fewer kingdoms as some were swallowed up. Gwynedd took over Powys in the mid-ninth century and in SE several kingdoms were brought together. Dyfed became Deheubarth
• Rhodri who had a kingdom in SW Wales divided it among his sons in different kingdoms, losing cohesion. There was a strong tradition of shared inheritance and familial compensation for extended kin-groups. The llandaff charter of 955 reveals violent entourages between aristocrats.
• Hywel Dda united the southern kingdom in 942. and submitted to Edward the Elder in 918 and to Aethelstan at Hereford in 926. He codified welsh law and issues English-style coinage
• English politics had an influence. Soft power developed by raiding and military expeditions. Dyfed in the 880s sought Alfred’s overlord-ship due to the growing power of Gwynedd.

Question 9

How did Alfred culturally bind people together?

Answer 9

• There is itinerant kingship and are travelling around at councils and feasts.
• he translated the pastoral care into Old English which might be read at sermons. He altered the focus of bishops from leadership to teaching, encouraging the translation of religious texts into the vernacular
• he made coinage universally royal (English inscription and his face and title).
• he built a chain of fortified burns and this led to taxation being exacted on a wide number of people. Alfred constructed a chain of fortified burhs, stretching from Bridgnorth to Eddisbury and as far east as Hertford
• his conception of Anglecynn - Viking raids and settlement enabled Alfred to imagine and promote an opposing ‘Other’, first in the destructive raiders and then in the people of the Danish, against which Englishness could be defined
• Signed a treaty with Guthrum, establishing the Danelaw as a separate entity.
• his perception of englishness was fundamentally different, centred around southern provinces.

Question 10

athelbald II and overall amount paid to vikings

Answer 10

-Overall, total of 250,000 paid. This showed Aethelred’s II regime could raise huge sums of money at short notice. They also paid money to an army of Vikings to acts a mercenary against future raids.

Question 11

succession after Aethelstan

Answer 11

• Kingship remained in one family but there was no guarantee of unity or indeed succession. Factions in Wessex and Mercia nominated different candidates from the ruling in 957 (here the Mercians appointed Edgar, brother of current king Eadwig as their ruler).
• Wasn’t divided at Edgar’ death – ultimately resolved.
• Eadwig issued more than 60 charters in 956 (unprecedently high) perhaps seeking to bring new factions onto his side. His marriage to Aelfgifu threatened Edgar’s claim.
• Edgar made sure all minting places used the same design by the 970s.

Question 12

Mercia in the 8th century and what changed

Answer 12

• Mercian charters commanded few written texts. Most come from other kingdoms which although not universally hostile, their perspectives are naturally different. The structure and organisation of the Kingdom seems to be different from others.
• Penda of Mercia had been powerful in around 655 but it was temporary hegemony. 12 kings ruled Northumbria during the reigns of the just Aethelbald and Offa.
• Christianity led to greater literacy and therefore greater exploitation of resources. It also meant that the morality of their tenure was judged in accordance with Christian values (expected to uphold justice, promote learning and patronise the church).

Question 13

Aethelbald of Mercia

Answer 13

• became king following Ceolred’s death in 716 but his power was extended by the death of Wihtred of Kent in 725 and the abdication of Ine of Wessex in 726.
• bede describes him as the over-king of England south of the Humber. Yet Kings of Kent continued to grant land in their own names.
• fought with Cuthred of Wessex in 743 against the Welsh.
• only interacted with the north through raids in 737 and 740.
• he was accused, by Boniface, of violating church privileges (not taking a wife and sleeping with virgin nuns)

Question 14

Offa of Mercia

Answer 14

-parameters of influence similar to AB
-There is a letter from Charlemagne promising protection of English merchants in Francia. wHen he asked his son to marry one of the Charlemagne’s daughters Bertha, it was an insult and a trade embargo was launched.. he only condoned the marriage of one of his sons. - terms not equal. He also gave Offa a Hunnish sword - prestigious but the mark of a retainer not an equal.
-He was inspired by kingship on the continent. The ritual of royal anointing was adopted. His son Ecgfrith was appointed co-ruler in 787. His depiction on coinage mirrors King David to whom Charlemagne had been identified with. He was the exemplar of Christina kingship also. -former kings of the Hwicce and South Saxons retained power as ealdormen, but in Kent Mercian nobles were used instead.
-coins minted in his name in EA in 790s.
He built a dyke between him and the Welsh providing a border between him and the newly revitalised Powys. He could command large amounts of resources (estimates of men range from 5000-125,000). It offered comparisons to Roman occupation (Hadrian’s Wall).
-His wife witnessed his charters appearing as queen of the Mercians in many and coins were issued in her name.

Question 15

how did Offa expand his kingdom?

Answer 15

• He eliminated local royal lines. He executed the king of EA (ASC 794).
• There is a gold coin of Offa with Arabic inscription. Offa’s coin looked so similar to Arabic coins that it might be accepted internationally. No previous Anglo-Saxon king struck their name on a gold coin.
• He elevated the see at Lichfield, establishing arch-bishopric status. This is because the archbishop at Canterbury had refused to anoint his son as heir to the throne.
• Offa became king in 757. It is not until the 780s that Offa grants land in Kent (between inauguration) it was Kentish. They had autonomy for 10 years. Coin was minted in 785. -Offa is described as Rex Anglorum – King of the English. He never referred to himself as this, the charters survive from 10th and 11th century copies where this title was applicable

Question 16

was Offa a new type of king?

Answer 16

• Aethelbald and Offa should be seen in the mould of previous kings power based on military prowess not a new type of kingship. It wasn’t united and there is no evidence that either sought to do so. It was not a prototype of a united England.
• Bede suggest that this type of power had been held by 7 previous kings. Bede stresses the power of Kent and Northumbria more than those of Mercia.

Question 17

how did the economy change during the 8th century?

Answer 17

• timber embankments on the Thames were thought to have been used to pull ships.
• the maximum level of coin loss is at emporia suggesting the most intense period of trading and this is supported by infrastructure evidence such as roads, trackways, and drains at Covent Garden.
• the trading centre at London grew to 55/60 hectares.
• many of the buildings constructed had street frontages and open-air yards for activities such as butchers and the preparation of raw materials. Lava quaernstones and wine suggests trade with France and the Low Countries of the Rhineland .

Question 18

how did kings interact with economic changes?

Answer 18

• in the 680s, King Eadric’s law codes make reference to royal officials witnessing transactions. By the 8th century, there is evidence for kings collecting tolls from traders with toll-collectors appearing in charter Witness lists.
• one of Charlemagne’s letters to Offa makes reference to the protection of English merchants. The introduction of a trade embargo also suggests it would have a direct impact on the actions of the king.
• Eadberht of Northumbria started currency reform in the 740s but it continued until 790 under Offa. Eadberht’s thinner lighter pennies persisted in the north, but the south had a standard, heavier one. There was a contraction in the number of mints to 6 different sites, such as York.
• Moneyers may have paid kings the right to mint coins and speaks of increased desires to assert their authority over all aspects of the kingdom.

Question 19

how did agricultural sectors change during the 8th century?

Answer 19

• settlement shift from lighter to heavier and more productive soils.
• more acreages of wheat and the use of the Severn’s floodplains for pasture
• Fish-traps on the blackwater Estuary and the construction of watermills, such as at Tamworth in Staffordshire.
• agricultural intensification may be due to the church They had more wealth due to monastic boom and it created a relatively sedentary, unproductive population who consumed lots of resources.
• The stability of land tenure due to the introduction of bookland rewarded long term investment in agricultural production of the wider landscape.

Question 20

changes to christianity in the seventh and eighth centuries

Answer 20

• Most of our information comes not from narrative sources but documentary ones, such as charters, litigation on disputes and decrees of synods.
• Lay owners were accessed of asset stripping and encroaching on their landed resources (e.g. Wukfheard at Inkberrow). Monasteries were caught between the ambitions of their lay patrons and the desires of their bishops.
• In 747, Boniface described to Ab Cuthbert of Canterbury the steps he had taken to reform the Frankish church, suggesting Cuthbert take similar measures to reform the Anglo-saxon church.
• The council at Clovesho tried to define secular and ecclesiastical boundaries. it also noted that many priests were not proficient in Latin.

Question 21

church and king hostility in the seventh and eight centuries

Answer 21

• hostility between Offa and Jaenberht led to the creation of a new archdiocese at Lichfield 787 (heartland of Mercia), removing some of his power.
• This was due to revolts in 770s against Mercian control of Kent. There were also disputes over monasteries at Cookham in 798.
• Cennwulf and Wilfred also argued over access to the monastery at Reculver in the early ninth century.

Question 22

the church and trade

Answer 22

• Major church were shown to have their own ports. Reculver was well situated with access to the sea and imported pottery has been linked to Lyminge.
• religious communities were also a stimuli for networks of exchange. Liturgical life necessitated access to goods such as wine.
• In 749, Aethelbald issued a decree at a council at Gumley freeing all churches and monasteries in Mercia from royal taxation except for ‘common burdens’ for public works like bridges.
• AS churchmen such as Alcuin of York had been in Charlemagne’s court and therefore helped with the Carolingian renaissance. Byzantine gold and purple pigment were used in the south Humbrian kingdoms as seen in the Vespasian Psalter produced in the 720s.

Question 23

golden age for peasants

Answer 23

• low intensity economic activity due to recessions about removal or remain troops demands a lot less of peasant labourers
• settlements were spread out and fluid - permanent communities of more than 500 people were rare, the majority lived in rural settlements and farmsteads. -There were four main Wics/Emporia, Ipswitch, York, London and Hamwic. These were suggestive of a re-emergence of towns. Merchants concentrated here.

Question 24

how did the environment influence trade?

Answer 24

• The fastest form of travel was water, the direction of waterways influenced travel and interactions with places outside of it. Western Britain had trade routes from Gaul and Spain whereas the east had waterways with Scandinavia and the Rhineland basin.
• The environment shaped economic realities. Yearly rainfall decreases from west to east. Temperature fluctuations increase as you go East.

Question 25

Edgbert and the rise of Wessex

Answer 25

• In 829 he invaded Mercia and drove out Wiglaf. But then in 830 he lost Mercia. He redefined his relationship with Mercia by creating a number of joint acts.
• He divided the Wessex dynasty, giving his son, Aethelwulf the eastern provinces. This re-established East Anglican independence, but whilst they may have been an independent province, they were still subject to the west Saxons overall.
• He gave stability to the West Saxon royal line. Everyone who becomes king of Wessex is his direct descent and they eventually become king of all England. This is perhaps why they become top nation.