Week 7&8 - Inflammation and Immunity Flashcards
What are the two types of irreversible injury?
Apoptosis
Necrosis
What is necrosis?
uncontrolled cell growth
does not require energy
damages surrounding cells
what is coagulative necrosis?
dry gangrene gangrene is coagulative necrosis in extremities lack of nuclei ghost cell outlines ischemia
what is liquefactive necrosis?
wet gangrene infection in CNS due to ischemia (only place it doesn't cause coagulative) cell proteins digested pus (neutrophils)
what is caseous necrosis?
granulomas are a cause (however granulomas don’t always have necrosis)
complete loss of structure
will look like there are lots of blue, powdery grains in it
TB a main cause
what is fibrinoid necrosis?
in smooth muscle walls of arteries
eosinophilic/fibrinous deposits (bright, almost hot, pink)
what is fat necrosis?
fat undergoes necrosis
releases fat from cells
chalky deposits (white patches on histology)
what is apoptosis
controlled cell death
requires energy
everything remains bound in membranes
what are the two types of apoptotic initiation?
Intrinsic - aka mitochondrial pathway - related to growth factors
higher levels of pro apoptic BLC2 proteins than anti apoptotic - leads to caspase 9
Extrinsic - ligand binds to extracellular aspect of death domain receptors leading to intracellular conformational change
FAS - first apoptotic signal
TNF - tumour necrosis factor
these activate caspase 8
what happens when apoptosis is initiated
caspase 3, 6, 7 activated
apoptotic bodies form - eaten by phagocytes
what do necrosis/apoptosis look like on gel electrophoresis?
necrosis - smear
apoptosis - like rungs on a ladder
what is exudate?
composed of serum, fibrin, and white blood cells
what leaks from the bloodstream to a site of inflammation
what is a cytokine?
any small protein that is involved in cell signalling (not hormones)
what is a chemokine?
a type of cytokine. They are able to attract nearby cells, getting them to move to where they need to be. This can be either towards or away from the chemokine. This process is called chemotaxis.
What are integrins?
receptors
They’re important in adhesion between cells and the extracellular matrix
what are opsonins?
any molecule that has the ability to mark an antigen or dead cell as requiring phagocytosis. They bind to the cell or antigen and make it easier for phagocytes to reach the cells by overriding the charge repulsion between the phagocyte and the target
What is the complement system
a system of proteins that enhances the effects of antibodies and phagocytes to clear microbes and damaged cells.
part of the innate immune system
produced by the liver and circulated the blood
What is Substance P?
a polypeptide that acts as a neurotransmitter and a neuromodulator
what is inflammation?
the reaction of viving, vascularised tissue to injury
what are the primary lymphoid organs
Bone marrow - WHERE ALL B AND T CELLS ARE MADE
Thymus - where t cells develop
what are the secondary lymphoid organs?
lymph nodes and spleen
also tonsils and appendix
what is the anti-viral state?
produce interferon alpha and beta to tell neighbouring cells to start upregulating anti-viral proteins and downregulating RNA production and protein translation
What are PAMPs
Pathogen-associated molecular patterns
such as lipopolysaccharide
What are DAMPs
Damage-associated molecular patterns
such as DNA, ATP and RNA
What are PRRs
Pattern recognition receptors
Detect PAMPs and DAMPs
e.g. toll-like receptors - 10 types
TLR3 binds to double stranded viral RNA
TLR4 binds to lipopolysaccharide, as found in bacterial cell walls
TLR5 binds to flagellin, a protein found in bacterial flagella
release cytokines like IL-1, IL-6 and TNF
why is cleavage of caspases important?
caspases cleave proteins, so need to be controlled.
only want caspases to be activated when they need to be i.e. apoptosis
so they are inactive and are cleaved to be activated
what diseases can inflammation worsen/cause?
Cancers Atherosclerosis Obesity, type II diabetes Neurodegenerative diseases stroke/myocardial infarct
which immune cells are found in the blood?
monocytes
NK cells
resident liver macrophages
which immune cells are found in tissues?
pericytes
mast cells
tissue macrophages
dendritic cells (especially near blood vessels or surface barriers such as skin and GI tract)
Triggers of inflammation
Lack of self - Cell surface molecules that prevent immune attack e.g. MHC class I, complement inhibitors
Perturbed cellular homeostasis (effector-triggered immunity) - e.g. ion balance
Pattern triggered - PAMPs or DAMPs
Mild physical trauma - degranulates mast cells - releases histamine - vasoactive - makes blood vessels leaky -dilation
serotonin acts similarly to histamine - vasoactive
indicators of inflammation
redness swelling pain loss of function heat
types of exudate
Pus -Neutrophil and enzyme rich
Fibrinous - Few cells, greyish sticky fibrin coating
Serous - Few cells, serum-like, little fibrinogen/platelets
Haemorrhagic - Vascular destruction
describe how immune cells get out of the blood to a site of inflammation
Margination is the process of neutrophils (and other white blood cells) accumulating near the vessel wall. Slow flow of blood along with the presence of more RBCs in inflammation leads to more margination. They then roll along the wall of the vessel. Histamine, DAMP and cytokines cause endothelium to expose sticky selectins on its surface. Rolling is associated with selectins. Cytokines increases surface adhesion molecules which firmly bind neutrophils. This is called firm adhesion and is associated with integrins. The process of a cell squeezing its way through the endothelium is called diapedesis. Neutrophils are guided out of the venule by pericytes. They then respond to DAMPs and have a transcriptional burst (respiratory burst as there is a generation of ATP), release cytokines, chemokines and growth factors and migrate around the tissue and screen it. Fibrin matrix helps them get around. Phagocytes need a matric to crawl over for directed migration.
neutrophil chemotaxic agents
Self - Coagulation products - Complement C5a, C3a - IL-8 Non-self -Bacterial endotoxin -F-met-leu-phe peptides (bacteria have this tag on all their peptides)
how do resident macrophages shield trivial injury?
“cloak” general wear and tear by covering it
saves energy by stopping immune response
too much injury and it cannot be covered - neutrophils undergo cell death and immune response is initiated
what molecules are involved with pain?
Bradykinin - makes nociceptors more sensitive to pain ATP serotonin histamine proteases Prostaglandins amines cytokines
what are the three activations of the complement system?
Classical pathway - when the body already has antibodies to an antigen
mannose-binding lectin pathway - mannose is not found in human cells - lectin is a class of protein which binds to sugars
alternative pathway - spontaneous activation of C3 - human cells deactivate it but pathogens don’t
what happens when the complement system is activated?
all 3 form a C3 convertase which breaks it into C3a (changes blood vessel endothelium and degranulates mast cells) and C3b (opsonin) - C3b also activates C5b which activates the lytic pathway - leads to membrane attack complex MAC which makes pores in pathogen - swells and bursts
what are neutrophils?
most common WBC
recruited rapidly
good at killing but dies quickly
makes up pus
what are macrophages?
differentiated monocytes Good at everything Multipurpose Can kill bacteria but only if activated involved in healing Clearance of dead cells. Will eat dying cells ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS
what are eosinophils
granulocytes, with granules containing DNAses and RNAses
involved in allergy
stain bright red
bind to IgE on the surface of multicellular parasites, which causes them to degranulate and release compounds which are toxic
perform ETosis (similar to NETosis)
what are basophils
BLOOD
granules which release histamine and heparin when activated, causing vasodilatation. These cells act in allergies or parasite infections
what are mast cells
TISSUE
granules which release histamine and heparin when activated, causing vasodilatation. These cells act in allergies or parasite infections
what are dendritic cells
differentiated monocytes
phagocytes but not very good at it
not very many of them
MAIN ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS
what are natural killer cells
largely antiviral and anticancer, and kill cells that have been marked for killing by forming pores in them and inducing apoptosis
attack cells which have downregulated MHC I because this is a common strategy of viruses to avoid detection