week 7 Flashcards
functional connectivity
- involves a timeseries correlation between BOLD signals in different regions of the brain
what does BOLD signals mean
measures of oxygenated to de-oxygenated blood)
high correlation interpreted as
greater connectivity
low correction interpreted as
lower connectivity
McGregor and Gribble 2017
participants with greater connectivity (higher correlation), were better at observational learning
can we measure the rate of learning?
no cannot
rate of learning
hard to quantify because of variables such as the criterion used to assess people and we have no measure of their potential for learning
blocked practice
practicing the same tasks repeatedly in a predictable manner
AAA BBB CCC
random practice
practicing multiple tasks in a unpredictable manner
CAB, BCA, ABC
what does block result in
- predictable and repetitive
what does random result in
unpredictable and not repetitive
research on blocked Vs random practice
participant practice three barrier knockdown task in blocked or random order
what was the research measuring
acquisition, retention and transfer
how did the research do it
groups were split in retention to be either blocked or random
set up of shea and morgan
blocked–> respond to same stimulus repeatedly
random–> stimuli were intermixed
retention examined in both
results of shea and morgan
- blocked practice outperformed random in acquisition
- random practice outperformed blocked practice in both retention and transfer
what is contextual interference
interference that is generated due to the context associated with skilled practice
about contextual interference
- reduced performance in acquisition, but produced an advantage in learning
- by randomizing the order in which tasks were performed you generate high contextual interference
comparing variable and constant praction:
performance during acquistion is better for
performance during learning is better for
a) constant practice
B) variable practice
when comparing blocked VS random
A) performance during acquisition is better for
B) performance furing learning is better for
a) blocked
B) random
results of contextual interference are generalizable across a variety of tasks
- knot tying tasks
- badminton
- tennis serving
- foreign language vocabulary
rarely does ___ lead to more learning
block practice
the magnitude of contextual interference effect may differ with ____
age
- children don’t always show contextual interference effects
the magnitude of contextual interference effects may depend on
expertise
- even highly skilled learners can benefit from random practice
hall et al, 1994
examined the effect of blocked and random practice in NCAA athletes
- pitcher performed blocked and random practice and then were tested in both a blocked and random post-test
results of hall et all, 1994
- random practice facilitated transfer in both blocked and random tests
- even highly skilled athletes can benefit from random practice
contextual interference- hypotheses
forgetting and reconstruction hypothesis
- the process associated with reconstruction of the motor program are trained to a greater extent by random practice than blocked practice
more about the forgetting and reconstruction hypothesis
- when you perform a task, you draw the motor progrm from long term memory
- an action plan is constructed and then stays in working memory
- if the same program is used for the subsequent trial it stays in working memory
what does reconstructing the motor program involve
drawing it from long term memory aging
- these are the processes tested in retention and transfer
cuddy and jacoby
- examined the recall and words in a list
- words are present once or more than once
cuddy and jacoby: words present more than once are presented either:
- immediately, or in between intervening words
cuddy and jacoby: words repeated with lots of words in between are…. + what is known as
recalled more effectively than words repeated with no lags or short lags
- spacing effect
activities between trials that cause short term forgetting should…
promote learning
any activity that limits reconstruction should…
be detrimental to performance
what was Lee et al, 1997
- participant performed a sequential typing task
- they performed blocked practice, random or random with a model
random with a model
model gave information to aid reconstruction in working memory
lee et al 1997 resutls
performing acquisition with a model dimisihed the effect of random practice
what does giving the learner hints to help performance do?
- decreased learning
- not beneficial for long term
- extreme short term benefit
neural basis of contextual interference
- neural correlated of learning remain not well understood
- some evidence that default mode activation might change in older adults
- functional connectivity analyses could yield interesting findings
Pauwels 2018
- examined brain activation in response to blocked and random practice in young and older adults
results of pauwels et al 2018
- found that random practice led to better retention performance than blocked
- there was differential modulation of default mode network activiation as a function of practice
results of pauwels et al 2018 for older adults
random practice resulted in larger decreases in DMN activation
- could be bc with more disperse, learning-related activity
measuring activation in the default mode network
- set of brain structures that exhibit a stable pattern of oscillations during resting state
includes : - precuneus
- hippocampus
- prefrontal cortex
- posterior cingulate cortex
oscillatoin patterns
- ## change when involved in focused task
serial practice
combines the predictableness of blocked practice with the non-receptiveness of random
ABC- ABC- ABC
results of serial practice
not different then random in retention and is better than blocked
what could explain the benefits of random practice
contextual interference
- elaborative processing hypothesis
- forgetting and reconstruction hypothesis
feedback can be
inherent (or intrinsic)
inherent feedback needs?
no processing at all
- seeing the ball miss the net
feedback can also be augmented (or extrinsic)
- feedback is provided that supplement inherent feedback
augmented feedback
- concurrent VS terminal
- immediate VS delayed
- accumulated VS distinct
- sensory modality of feedback can be variable
concurrent VS terminal feedback
- concurrent feedback is presented during the movement whereas terminal is presented at the end
immediate VS delayed
- immediate feedback is presented immediately after the action where delayed is presented at some time after the movement
accumulated VS distinct
- feedback that represents each performance separately and feedback that represents a group of performances aggregated
sensory modality of feedback can be variable
verbal VS non-verbal
knowledge of results (KR)
- is verbal or verbalizable terminal feedback about the outcome of the movement with respect to the goal
- can be highly specific or variable
KR is NOT…
about the movement itself
- its about movement relative to the target
what is variable augmented feedback about
goal achievement
knowledge of performance (KP)
augmented feedback about the movement pattern
KP is. directed at..
directed at correcting movement patterns and form
- not concerned with the movement outcome
KP is…
feedback about the movement itself
information processing theories
viewed feedbacks role as strictly computational
- info that can be used to modify performance
informational theories was too narrow to describe all the feedback results. what else can you use
- motivational aspects of feedback
- attentional focus aspects of feedback
augmented feedback hypotheses
- it is hard to know what type of feedback to provide in a natural setting
- closed skill with a difficult or novel component are used for feedback based research
what is performance on no-KR retention and transfer tests used to assess
learning
how can we examine wheter the type of KR/KP we provide acts more a learning variable or a performance variable?
a KR manipulation that has only an effect during acquisitions is a performance
A KR manipulation that has a effect on retention and transfer is a learning
what does KR affects
both learning and performance
bilodeau, and schumsky 1959
no KR had higher mean absolute error
KR every 2 trails showed lower absolute error = better performance
augmented feedback may affect
learning and performance
video feedback
- suggest that is only helpful if accompanied by error correcting cues
kinematic feedback
- can inform learners of aspects of the movement that are difficult to perceive
the effectiveness of kinematic KP depends on?
tasks goals
- found to be effective for drawing tasks and tasks where the quality of the movement is the task goal
kinetic feedback
- providing feedback about the forces that generate motion
- most natural form of feedback
- feedback the nervous system uses
kinetic KP is effective for?
learning
- easier to correct a variable that the participant can control
howell 1956 study
- examined the impact of kinetic KP on track athlete starts
- provided FB on the force-time curve applied to the blocks to the experimental group
howell 1956 study, resutls
- participants who received kinetic KP showed significant improvement in force application
what are the wasy to provide augmented info about movement outcome (KR)
verbal or verbalizable (can be displayed)
bandwidth KR- precision of feedback
- FB is presented when performance falls outside of a “zone” or bandwidth
tighter bandwidth
- more precise feedback
larger bandwidth
less precise feedback
sherword 1988
conducted the first study on the size of the bandwidth that should be used
- examined performance on rapid elbow flexion task
- participants were trained on certain timing performance
- KR given in 3 frequencies
(every trial KR)
(if they were 5% outside the bandwidth)
(if they were 10% outside the bandwidth)
- measured absolute constant error, variable error, total error
sherwoord 1988 results
10% outside was best perfomance
Lee and carnhan, 1980
- used a yoked design to further investigate the effect of KR on performance
guidance hypothesis
- augmented feedback is meant to supplement inherent feedback
- providing too much feedback does not allow the learner to develop a reference of correctness
- another performance-learning paradox
does more KR lead to stronger learning? what can you use
- relative frequency of KR vs the Absolute frequency of KR
winstein and schmidit 1990
- examined the effect of KR- delivered as RMSE on a series of elbow extension and flexion movement
- measured RMSE for a 100% group and a 50% KR group
- compared retention and transfer performance
winstein and schmidit 1990 results
half didnt recieve feed back and perfomrance was better
the role of NO-feedback trials
- reduced relative frequency of KR is beneficial for learning
- participants are forced to evaluate their inherent feedback in no-feedback trials
results in better performance when KR is
different or unavailable
fading KR
providing more KR early on and less KR as practice continues
the timing of KR can also make a difference
- most common “learning” literature refers to the need for immediate KR (but isnt rly true)
trial delay paradigms
delaying KR about a given trial by a number of trials
- delaying then providing results better in performance in transfer and retention
summary KR paradigms
providing aggregate data about a group of trials
KR can be used to improve both performance and learning
- works better if provided as a larger bandwidth
- work better if it promotes constant with inherent feedback
- provided as a summary, and not provided immediately after every trial
contextual interference- hypotheses
elaborative processing
forgetting and reconstruction
elaborative processing hypothesis
random practice promotes more comparative and contrastive analyses of actions required to complete the tasks
preparatory and evaluative processes for each task are
different
representations of action are more _____
memorable
