Week 6 - Function and Systems Theory

Question 1

Methodological Collectivism & Macro Levels

Answer 1

Unlike methodological individualism, which explains social phenomena solely through individual actions, methodological collectivism (or holism) holds that the larger context such as societal structures, cultures, and institutions shapes individual behaviour.

Ontological Holism:
- “the whole is more than the sum of its parts”
- individual actions are embedded in, and often determined by, the social context or collective environment

Durkheim’s Influence: Durkheim argued that social facts such as norms, values and institutional structures exist independently and shape individual actions

Macro/Meso Perspective:
Phenomena are examined at levels beyond individual (e.g. group behaviour, organisational dynamics, national policies)

Question 2

Systems Theory (Functionalism)

Answer 2

Focuses on understanding how various parts of a system work together to achieve a particular function or maintain stability.

Functional vs Causal Explanation
- Causal Explanation: explains phenomena in terms of causes or preceding events (e.g. why a chameleon’s nervous system causes colour change)
- Functional Explanation: explains the purpose or role of a phenomenon within a system (chameleon changes colour to camouflage itself, thereby aiding survival)

Application in Social Sciences
- in organisations or society, functional explanations ask: what role does a behaviour or institution play
- e.g. functionalism sees crime as a component that can help maintain social balance even if it’s undesirable

Limitation
- functionalism often relies on abstract, sometimes teleological reasoning (explaining things in terms of purposes rather than observable mechanisms)
- a complete explanation should include both the system’s purpose and the underlying processes

Question 2

Symbolic Interactionism

Answer 2

Emphasises that social reality is constructed through symbols and meanings. It studies how individuals interpret and give meaning to their social world.

Meaning and Interpretation
- human behaviour is largely influenced by the meanings that people ascribe to objects, events, and interactions
- these meanings are not fixed, they evolve through social interaction and cultural contexts

Role of Norms
- norms are shared rules or expectations that guide behaviour within a group
- what constitutes appropriate behaviour in one culture may differ in another

Practical Application
- in an organisational context, to understand a company’s culture, one must look at the symbolic interactions (how employees interpret roles, routines, and the unwritten rules that govern behaviour)

Limitation
- while it uncovers the “why” behind behaviour, symbolic interactionism sometimes struggles to account for the objective, systemic aspects that shape behaviour

Question 2

Normativity & Fallibility

Answer 2

Normativity concerns the standards or rules that determine what is considered “right” or “justified”. It assumes that there is a basis for saying someone ought to act a certain way.

Wittgenstein’s Insight
- distinguishes between merely following a rule and actively interpreting or applying a rule based on understanding its intent

Fallibilism
- idea that all our beliefs and norms are potentially fallible
- no belief or rule can be considered absolutely certain
- this opens the door for continuous interpretation and adjustment

Implication
- norms guide behaviour, but because people are fallible, interpretations of these norms can vary, leading to diverse outcomes in different contexts

Question 3

Interpretation

Answer 3

Process by which individuals make sense of their experiences and the behaviours of others.

Context-Dependence:
- meanings are not universal, they depend heavily on cultural and situational context

Everyday Decision-Making:
- people constantly interpret social signals such as body language, tone, and context, to decide what is appropriate or expected

Challenge:
- without a shared context or agreed-upon meanings, interpretations can vary widely, which can lead to misunderstandings or conflict

Question 4

Norms & Organisational Culture

Answer 4

In organisations, symbolic interactionism examines how shared meanings and norms form the basis of a distinct corporate culture.

Organisational Culture as a System:
- a company can be seen as a micro-society with its own norms, rituals, and symbols that guide behaviour

Critical Examination:
- to understand an organisation fully, one must look beyond formal rules and policies to the informal, symbolic interactions that truly define the culture

Practical Relevance:
- this approach helps explain why certain behaviours persist in organisations and how they may lead to both effective functioning and, at times, irrational or counterproductive practices

Question 5

Coleman’s Bathtub Model of Explanation

Answer 5

Critique of functionalism by James Coleman
- argues you can’t directly explain system-level outcomes (e.g. crime rates) using other system-level conditions (like unemployment) without tracing the individual mechanisms

The Bathtub Model:
1. Macro -> Micro: Social condition (e.g. unemployment) influences individual actions (e.g. theft)
2. Micro -> Macro: Aggregated individual actions lead to macro-level outcomes (e.g. crime rates)

• critiques Durkheim, who claimed crime contributes to social integration: from a legal standpoint, crime is not justified even if it serves a social function
• Conclusion: Functional/system-level explanations must be grounded in individual-level causality

Question 6

Organisational Ecology

Answer 6

Explains how organisational forms emerge, survive, or disappear in a given environment.

Units of Analysis:
- population (all microbreweries in a region)
- organisational forms (e.g. start-ups, family business)

Concepts:
- Population density: number of organisations in a given form
- Foundings/Deaths: measured to analyse how forms rise or fall
- Causal explanation: driven by selection mechanisms like competition or legitimation

Question 7

Equifinality Problem

Answer 7

Functional explanations assume there is one best way to fulfil a function.
- but in reality, multiple ways often exist (e.g. lungs vs gills for breathing)
- this undermines functional explanations: because alternatives functional equivalents can’t be excluded

Question 8

Three Critiques of Functional Explanation

Answer 8

1. Cause-Effect Confusion
   - functional explanations often reverse cause and effect
   - if a causal mechanism can be found, the functional explanation becomes unnecessary
   - if no causal mechanism is found, the functional explanation is invalid
2. Ontological Problem
   - assumes the existence of higher-order systems
   - but what proof do we have that these systems truly exist?
   - how can we test for their existence of influence?
3. Functional Equivalence
   - functional explanations assume the function is a necessary condition
   - but often, multiple entities can fulfil the same function
   - in organisation theory, equifinality is a more reasonable assumption