Week 2 - Language of Science

Question 1

Enlightenment: Rationalism & Empiricism

Answer 1

The Enlightenment, led by Immanuel Kant, emphasised independent thinking.
- This era separated science from religion, rejecting the bible as a source of knowledge.

Rationalism (Innate Knowledge + Deduction)
- argues that some knowledge exists a priori (before experience)
- e.g. we understand causality without direct observation

Empiricism (Observation + Induction)
- argues that all knowledge comes from sensory experience

Key Types of Knowledge:
- Analytic a priori: true by definition
- Synthetic a priori: not just based on definitions but also reasoning

Question 2

Positivism as an Extreme Form of Empiricism

Answer 2

Positivism (Auguste Comte)
- only empirical (observed) knowledge is scientific
- dismisses anything that cannot be verified through observation, including metaphysical ideas (e.g. god)

Question 3

Logical Positivism (Vienna Circle, post-WWI)

Answer 3

• aims to replace religion with science
• verification as its central principle: only statements that can be tested through observation are meaningful
• structures knowledge using logic + observation to avoid metaphysics
• critiques: it ignores unobservable causes
• induction problem: relying only on past observations to predict the future is unreliable

Question 4

Logical Positivism & System of Knowledge

Answer 4

Logical Positivism Categorises Statements:
- logical nonsense (contradictions, e.g. “square ball”)
- analytic statements (true by logic, e.g. “a circle is round”)
- metaphysical statements (cannot be tested, e.g. “god exists”)
- empirical/synthetic statements (verifiable, e.g. “water boils at 100°C”)

Core Principles:
- logical reducibility: all scientific statements must be reduced to direct observations
- unity of science ideal: all knowledge should fit into one structured system, using logic to connect different sciences (math, physics, psychology, etc)

Question 4

Grand Theories of Knowledge

Answer 4

Before Logical Positivism, three main epistemologies existed:

1. Rationalism
   - thinking = knowledge, observations are unreliable
   - strength: logical consistency
   - weakness: lacks empirical proof
2. Empiricism
   - only observations = knowledge
   - strength: based on experience
   - weakness: cannot observe causality or theoretical laws
3. Idealism
   - knowledge = thinking + observing
   - strength: combines experience and reasoning
   - weakness: unclear where the structure ideas come from

Question 5

The Induction Problem

Answer 5

Induction is the opposite of Deduction.

Deduction: deriving specific conclusions from general laws
- e.g. major premise: all humans are mortal
- minor premise: Socrates is a human
- conclusion: Socrates is mortal
- deductive reasoning is logically valid, even if premises are false

Induction: deriving general laws from specific observation
- e.g. visiting hundreds of houses with red roses and concluding that all roses are red (which is false)

Question 6

Positivist View on Induction

Answer 6

• if a characteristic is repeatedly observed in a phenomenon, it is probable that this applies generally
• however, inductive reasoning does not guarantee certainty (e.g. three bad experiences with Teslas do not prove all Teslas are bad
• conclusion: induction alone is unreliable, scientific knowledge progresses by mixing induction (hypothesis generation) and deduction (testing and refining theories)

Question 7

2 Challenges Logical Positivism Faces

Answer 7

1. Theoretical Concepts
   - some key scientific concepts cannot be directly
   - concepts have:
2. intention (theoretical meaning)
   - defines a concept through properties
3. extension (empirical meaning)
   - refers to real-world examples of the concept
4. Concept Structures in Social Science
   - reflective concepts: a concept determines its properties (e.g. firm performance -> growth, profit)
   - formative concepts: properties define the concept (e.g. democracy -> free elections)
   - many social science are subjective and difficult to measure

Pragmatic Concession:
- theoretical concepts are accepted in science if they:
1. explain observations beyond surface-level facts
2. generate new testable hypotheses

Question 8

Problem 2: Induction

Answer 8

Science allows induction, but distinguishes between:
- true statements (deductively proven)
- likely true statements (inductive generalisations)

Question 9

2 Models of Truth

Answer 9

1. The Correspondence Theory of Truth
   - a claim is true if it accurately reflects reality
   - weakness: hard to verify complex theoretical claims (e.g. economic recessions last a maximum of 10 years)

3 criteria for strong theoretical concepts:
1. Robustness: applicable in multiple contexts
2. Fit: consistent with existing theories
3. Predictability: generates reliable predictions

2. The Coherence Theory of Truth
   - truth is supported by multiple interrelated factors
   - avoids the induction problem by relying on a network of data, reasoning, and evidence rather than isolated observations

Question 10

The Standard Model of the Sciences

Answer 10

1. Coherence & the Empirical Cycle
   - science progresses through cycles of induction (hypothesis formation) and deduction (testing and refinement)
   - logical positivism adjusts to allow theoretical concepts and inductive reasoning, provided they contribute to knowledge growth
2. Theories & Scientific Explanation
   - theories explain why observations occur
   - their value lies in their ability to explain both current and future phenomena