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research methods > week 6 exp design 2 > Flashcards

week 6 exp design 2 Flashcards

1
Q

agency

A

human beings (agents) act upon and shape their environment

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2
Q

interpretation

A

people perceive, think and make choices to adapt their actions and behaviors

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3
Q

double interpretation

A

One person interprets how another person interprets, and acts accordingly, which may in turn influence the interpretation and action of the other person.

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4
Q

what did Giddens suggest

A

Participants interpret the researcher’s behaviour and the setting of the study and adapt their behaviour, which is then interpreted by the researcher.

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5
Q

give 2 agency-based biases in research

A
  1. participant effects
  2. investigator effects
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6
Q

bias

A

unwanted signal producing spurious results

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7
Q

what are participant effects

A

cues or triggers of the setting or researcher is interpreted by the ptsp producing response biases

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8
Q

what are investigator effects

A

behavior of researcher affects ptsp and data producing observer, sampling or selection bias

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9
Q

2 types of investigator effects

A

primary observer effect - researchers expectations about findings conveyed to ptsp and influence responses eg. self-fulfilling prophecies

secondary observer effects - researchers select and handle data in subjective, biased way

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10
Q

self-fulfilling prophecy

A

behaving so what you expect will become true

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11
Q

participant reactivity

A

act of doing exp causes ptsp to alter performance knowing they’re being observers - may happen consciously or unconsciously but produces response bias

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12
Q

response bias

A

systematic tendencies of ptsp to respond inaccurately producing either a systematic error, or if mixed with investigated effects - a confound

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13
Q

4 types of participant effects

A
  1. participant expectancy
  2. demand characteristics
  3. social desirability
  4. stereotype threat
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14
Q

participant-expectancy effects

A

Participant expects a result and therefore unconsciously affects the outcome or reports the expected result.

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15
Q

give an example of participant-expectancy effect

A

placebo effect

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16
Q

nocebo effect

A

negative expectations about treatment causes negative effects eg exaggerated fear of side effects

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17
Q

demand characteristics

A

Participants form an interpretation of the study’s purpose and subconsciously change their behaviour to fit that interpretation

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18
Q

what is pygmalion effect

A

Communication between the participant and investigator affect participant responses, e.g., encouraging and discouraging communication

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19
Q

golem effect

A

low expectations lead to poor performance

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20
Q

2 subtypes of demand characteristics

A

please you and screw you effects

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21
Q

social desirability

A

Tendency to answer questions in a manner that is expected to be viewed favourably by others and that produces or maintains a publicly acceptable image.

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22
Q

3 subtypes of social desirability bias

A
  1. Bradley effect
  2. evaluation apprehension
  3. watching eye effect
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23
Q

what is the bradley effect

A

When asked in a poll, voters respond they consider voting for a black candidate because they assume that this is socially desirable (politically correct); but in the end, they don’t vote for the black candidate.

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24
Q

what is evaluation apprehension

A

When being observed, participants feel evaluated and try to convey a positive image.

25
Q

what is watching eye effect

A

When being observed, participants try to behave better (or what they assume to be better) than without observation.

26
Q

stereotype threat

A

Responses are biased to conform to stereotypes about the participant’s social group.
 Can produce response biases in both directions, positive and negative.

27
Q

give 2 types of positive effects in stereotype threat

A

stereotype boost and lift

28
Q

stereotype boost

A

Perceive yourself better because of positive stereotypes about your own group.

29
Q

stereotype lift

A

Perceive yourself better because of negative stereotypes about another group (outgroup).

30
Q

3 ways to control participant effects

A

minimise, assess, account for

31
Q

how to minimize participant effects

A
  1. blind procedures -

Information which may influence the participants of the experiment is withheld (masked or blinded) until after the experiment is complete.

  1. Unobtrusive manipulations and measures: Conceal independent and dependent measures, so they do not provide clues about the research hypothesis.

3.deception - deceive

32
Q

ethical problems of blind procedures or unobtrusive methods

A

impossible to gain consent eg when recording

danger eg observing bullying

33
Q

how to asses participant effects

A

post-experiment questions eg “did you know what was expected?”

34
Q

how to account for participant effects

A

control conditions - have baseline for reference

randomized control tries

placebo control trials

35
Q

what does bias due to secondary observer effects during data sampling produce

A

sampling bias

36
Q

what does bias due to secondary observer effects during data recording and interpretation produce

A

observer bias

37
Q

what does bias due to secondary observer effects during data analyses produce

A

selection bias

38
Q

2 types of observer bias

A
  1. cognitive bias
    eg confirmation bias - A tendency to search for, interpret, favour, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one’s prior beliefs, values, or hypotheses.
    eg halo effect - endency for the positive impressions and beliefs in one area to influence a researcher’s data recording or interpretation in other unrelated areas.
  2. detection bias
    focusing on some cases to the detriment of others, e.g., checking diabetes in obese but not other patients, hence skewing the prevalence of diabetes in obese people.
39
Q

how to minimize investigator effects

A

double - blind procedures = participant and researcher are unaware of the allocation to experimental conditions and cannot anticipate any result.

40
Q

how to asses investigator effects

A

observer reliability - indicates how consistent the results are

41
Q

2 ways of assessing reliability during investigator effects

A

inter-observer relaibility = across different observers

intra-observer reliability aka test retest = within observer

42
Q

how to account for investigator effects

A

averaging across several researchers compensates for individual biases eg jury ratings

43
Q

if the bias DOESNT confound with effects you want to measure it is a…

A

systematic error

44
Q

if the bias does confound with the effects you want to measure it is a…

A

confounding variable

45
Q

participant and investigator effects decrease…

A

internal and external validity

46
Q

statistical sample

A

the entire pool (or set) of people, items, or events, about which a researcher wants to gain insight and draw conclusions in a study.

47
Q

statistical sample

A

a set of individuals or objects collected or selected from a statistical population by a defined procedure (i.e., sampling). = a subset of the population.

48
Q

sampling

A

the selection of a subset (i.e., sample) of individuals from within a statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population.

49
Q

what does systematic error in sampling cause

A

some members of the intended population to be less likely to be included in the sample (higher sampling probability) than others - low external validity

50
Q

non-probability sampling

A

non-random selecting producing bias eg volunteering, opportunity or snowball sampling

51
Q

what types of sampling bias is produced from non-probability sampling

A

exclusion bias - missing particular groups of sample

self-selection bias - eg people with specific characteristics more likely to agree to study than others

52
Q

probability sampling

A

random selection produces representative sample

53
Q

3 methods to probability sampling

A
  1. simple random sampling
  2. systematic sampling
  3. stratified sampling
54
Q

systematic sampling

A

Starting from a random number, every nth person from a list is selected

55
Q

stratified sampling

A

STRATUM = sub-population.
* STRATIFICATION = dividing members of the population
into homogeneous subgroups before sampling.
* If you know beforehand that there are different subgroups in the population.
* Each stratum is sampled randomly as an independent sub-population
* The number of individuals per stratum is proportional to the size of strata in the population.

56
Q

population validity

A

is participant sample representative

57
Q

ecological validity

A

is stimulus sample representative

58
Q

stages of research projects

A
  1. funding
  2. ethical approval
  3. empirical study - prepare and collect data
  4. dissemination - submit manuscript for publication, review eg peer review

research methods (11 decks)

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