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LEC 142 - Zoology > Week 6 > Flashcards

Week 6 Flashcards

1
Q

Definition: Taxonomy

A

The science of naming and classifying organisms within groups.
Groups are known as a ‘Taxa’ (plural) or ‘Taxon’ (single)

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2
Q

Definition: Phylogeny

A

The evolutionary history of a species or group of species
(‘tree of life’)

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3
Q

Definition: Systematics

A

The science of determining evolutionary relationships among organisms

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4
Q

Give four criteria for classifying organisms?

A
  • Morphological characters
  • Fossil record
  • Embryology
  • Molecular analysis (genetic differences)
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5
Q

Evolutionary relationships: Are homologous or analogous characters more important when determining phylogenic relationships?

A

Homologous are more important for classifying an organism.

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6
Q

Evolutionary relationships: What can be used to find primitive characters in living organisms?

A

Fossil record

(however this may be poor, and convergent evolution obscures relationships, so Embryology and Vestigial organs provide useful clues)

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7
Q

What is increasingly frequently used to determine evolutionary relationships?

A

Genetic similarity, which can be measured via molecular analyses

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8
Q

True / False

How we classify organisms indicates a single similarity and difference between them

A

False: it indicated overall similarities and differences

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9
Q

True / False

Classification of organisms reflect their evolutionary histories

A

True

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10
Q

True / False

Classification uses a hierarchy of units, from phylum to order

A

False: The classification uses a hierarchy of units from kingdom to species.

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11
Q

Phylogenic classification hierarchy order

A

Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

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12
Q

True / False

Species are referred to by three-part scientific names, following loose rules.

A

False: Species are referred to by two-part scientific names, following strict rules.
(The binomial naming system.)

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13
Q

True / False

When determining phylogenies, all characters are considered equally.

A

False: When determining phylogenies, some characters are more important than others.
(For example, only homologous characters reflect evolutionary relationships)

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14
Q

Schools of thought in systematics: Phenetic system

A
  • Groups organisms based on phenotypic similarity only
  • Groups with the most traits in common are supposed to be more closely related
  • Unreliable (Doesn’t distinguish between homologous and analogous)
  • Now uncommon but sometimes best option/1st stage
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15
Q

Schools of thought in systematics: Classic evolutionary

A
  • All shared characters, primitive and derived.
  • Accepts both mono- and paraphyletic groups
  • Groups organisms based on similarity of characters that reflect evolutionary relationships
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16
Q

Schools of thought in systematics: Cladistic systems

A
  • Derived characters most important
  • Accepts only monophyletic groups
  • Groups organisms based on similarity of characters that reflect evolutionary relationships
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17
Q

What are phylogenetic trees?

A

A graphical representation of evolutionary relationships among a set of organisms or groups of organisms

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18
Q

What are simple phylogenetic trees?

A
  • Order of organisms/orientation of the tree is arbitrary
  • D has not evolved from A, both evolved from a common ancestor
  • A-D may be equally ‘evolved’, A not more primitive
  • Relationships are shown, but time only relative
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19
Q

Types of phylogenetic tree?

A

Cladogram

Phylogram

Dendrogram (Ultrametric)

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20
Q

Example of a monophyletic taxon

A

Class Mammalia

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21
Q

Example of paraphyletic taxon

A

Class Reptilia

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22
Q

Example of polyphyletic taxon

A

Green algae, brown algae, red algae

Algae sometimes considered polyphyletic, however, blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) are eubacteria

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23
Q

Time to a phylogenetic tree: Radiometric dating

A

Compares amount of radioactive isotope with amount of decay products (decay rate known) to estimate age

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24
Q

Time to a phylogenetic tree: Stratigraphy

A

Layering of deposited rocks allows geological timescale to be estimated

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25
Q

Time to a phylogenetic tree: Molecular clocks

A

Amount of genetic divergence used to estimate timing

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26
Q

What is the name of the classification system we use in modern day?

A

Linnaean system
(After Carl Linnaeus 1707-1778)

(An inclusive system of classifying of organisms - uses a hierarchy, he also formed the binomial nomenclature)

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27
Q

What does embryology of vertebrates show, when classifying organisms

A

Embryos of vertebrates show shared characteristics that reveal a common ancestor

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28
Q

What are the three different systems of thought in systematics?

A

Phenetic system

Classic evolutionary system (most commonly used today)

Cladistic system

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29
Q

What is monophyletic group?

A

Ancestor and all descendants

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30
Q

What is paraphyletic group

A

Ancestor and not all descendants

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31
Q

What is polyphyletic group?

A

Missing ancestors (less common)

32
Q

Classic evolutionary vs Cladistic systems

A

Both group organisms on similarity of characters reflecting evolutionary relationships.

Classic: accepts mono- and paraphyletic groups. All shared characters, priimitive and derived

Cladistic: only accepts monophyletic groups. Derived characters most important

33
Q

What are the 6 kingdoms on ‘the tree of life’?

A
  • Eubacteria
  • Archaea
  • Protista
  • Plantae
  • Fungi
  • Animalia

(Some believe in 3 main domains instead: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya)

34
Q

Features of the Eubacteria kingdom?

A

unicellular, prokaryotic​
peptidoglycan in the cell wall​

e.g.:​

cyanobacteria​

soil bacteria​

pathogenic bacteria

35
Q

Features of the Archaea kingdom?

A

unicellular, prokaryotic​
lacking peptidoglycan in the cell wall​

e.g.:​

halophile bacteria​

thermophile bacteria​

metanogen bacteria

36
Q

Features of the Protista kingdom?

A

uni- or multicellular, eukaryotic​
heterotrophic/photosynthetic​

e.g.:​

Paramecium​

algae

37
Q

Features of the Fungi kingdom?

A

multicellular​
heterotrophic​
not mobile​

e.g.:​

mushrooms​

yeasts

38
Q

Features of the Plantae kingdom?

A

multicellular​
photosynthetic​
not mobile​

e.g.: ​

ferns, mosses​

trees

39
Q

Features of the Animalia kingdom?

A

multicellular​
heterotrophic​
mobile​

e.g.​
corals, insects​
mammals

(Ancestor​ 800-675 mya​ cf. Choanoflagellates​)

40
Q

What are the key characteristics of Animalia?

A
  • Eukaryotic, multicellular, no cell walls​
  • Heterotrophic​ (Ingest and Digest)
  • Mobile​
  • Cell differentiation (four main tissue types)​
  • Sexual reproduction (usually)​
  • Blastula stage of development (unique)​
41
Q

How can we classify animals by Body symmetry? (body plans)

A

Represents evolutionary steps on the animals tree of life. Body symmetry includes:
- Asymmetric,
- Radial
- Bilateral

42
Q

How can we classify animals by Body cavities? (body plans)

A

Body cavities include:

  • Coelomates (Coelom and internal organs surrounded by mesoderm)
  • Acoelomates
    (Do not have enclosed cavities)
  • Pseudocoelomates
    (Lines with mesoderm, but no mesoderm surrounds the internal organs)
43
Q

Difference in development of Animalia?
- Protostomes (Mollusks, annelids, arthropods)

A

Two layers of cells are offset
Solid masses of mesoderm tissue split and form coelom
Mouth develops from blastopore

44
Q

Difference in development of Animalia?
Deuterostomes
(echioderms, chordates)

A

Two layers of cells are aligned
Outward bulges of developing digestive tract form coelom
Anus develops from blastopore

45
Q

Characteristics of Phylum Porifera​?

(Meaning: “Pore bearing”​. Eg sponge)

A
  • c. 5,500 spp.​
  • Aquatic (mostly marine)​
  • Sessile, but with free-swimming larvae​
  • Asymmetric (some radial symmetry)​
  • No true tissues/organs​
  • Flagellated collar cells​
  • Mostly hermaphrodite
46
Q

Characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria

(Meaning: “Stinging” (Cnida = nettle) Eg Jellyfish)

A
  • c. 10,000 spp.​
  • Include jellyfish, sea anemones and corals​
  • Aquatic (mostly marine)​
  • Radial symmetry​
  • Two body forms: sessile polyps & mobile medusae​
  • Acoelomates, two cell layers: epidermis & gastrodermis​
47
Q

Examples of Phylum Cnidaria

A

Chironex fleckeri (box jellyfish or ‘sea wasp’) The sting from this Australian & SE Asian jellyfish can be fatal​ as they can produce a heart attack

Aurelia aurita (moon jellyfish) The sting from this species is usualy harmless, you may not feel it at all.

Others include:
- Hydra​
Class: Hydrozoa​
- Jellyfish​
Class: Scyphozoa &​
Cubozoa
- ​Sea anemones & Coral​
Class: Anthozoa​

48
Q

Characteristics of Phylum Platyhelminthes?

Meaning: “Flat worms”​

A
  • c. 20,000 spp.​
  • Flatworms, flukes & tapeworms​
  • Free-living aquatic or parasitic​
  • Bilateral symmetry, flat body​
  • Acoelomates, with parenchyma​
  • Simple mouth, no anus​
49
Q

Examples of Phylum Platyhelminthes?

A
  • Free-living flatworms, Class: Turbellaria
  • Flukes, Class: Trematoda (endoparasites of mammals)
  • Tapeworms, Class: Cestoda (endoparasites of mammals)
  • Parasitic flatworms, Class: Monogenea (ectoparasites of fish)
50
Q

Adaptations for Phylum Platyhelminthes parasitic life?

A
  • Size and Shape = small, flat or cylindrical (pre-adaptation)
  • Reduces sense organs
  • Attachment organs
  • Respire: Aerobic (non-parasites), Anaerobic (Parasites)
  • Reproduction: Hermaphroditic (pre-adaptation), asexual (pre-adaptation), Planarian (non-parasitic)
51
Q

Adaptation vs Pre-adaptation?

A

Adaptation - Has evolved as a result of a function

Pre-adaptation - Characteristic already present, but having it has made a function easier

52
Q

What are the possible advantages of infecting secondary and tertiary hosts?

(Phylum Platyhelminthes parasitic life)

A

Increased reproductive potential​

Increased range of the parasite in space & time​

Intermediate host can promote infection of definitive host

53
Q

How many Phyla does the Kingdom Animalia contain?

A

​​35 Phyla & about 1.5 M species described to date (95% invertebrates).

54
Q

What is the oldest group of animals?

A

Porifera (lacking tissues, organs or symmetry. eg sponges)

55
Q

Characteristics of Phylum Mollusca?

“molluscus = soft”​

A

Snails, clams and octopuses (93,000 species)​

Bilateral symmetry, coelomates​

Mantle membrane secretes shell (some have lost the shell) ​

Muscular foot for locomotion​

Head generally well developed; radula for feeding​

Majority aquatic, some species able to live in land ​

56
Q

What are characteristics of the class Bivalvia, within the phylum Mollusca?

“Bi = two, Valvia = valve”

A

Aquatic animals with 2 shell valves (bi-lateral symmetry)

Mostly sedentary or burrowing​

Greatly expanded gills for filter-feeding and respiration​

Separate sexes, fertilisation is external & free-swimming larva​

57
Q

What are characteristics of the class Gastropoda, within the phylum Mollusca?

“gastro = stomach, poda = feet”

A

Terrestrial and aquatic species

Head well developed for finding food; eyes, tentacles, etc

Asymmetrical body due to shell coiling & torsion

Herbivorous, carnivorous or scavengers

Separate sexes or hermaphrodite

eg Snails, slugs

58
Q

What is torsion (in gastropods)?

A

twisting of the body in relation to head & foot brings the anus above the head, usually due to a shell

59
Q

True / False

Snails have both male and female genitalia but still need to mate with another

A

True

Increases genetic diversity, and has diversity advantage than if they didn’t mate despite having both genitalia

60
Q

Mating in snails?

A

Elaborate and slow mating ritual ​

one snail will exchange sperm and a ‘love dart’ – mucus covered calcareous dart​

61
Q

Mating in snails: what are love darts?

A

secondary sexual characteristic​

Shot from sex organs; covered in mucus​

darter gains more fertilizations; darted dies sooner​

62
Q

What are characteristics of the Class Cephalophda in the Phylum Mollusca?

“cephalo = head, poda = feet”

A

Marine predators

Integral head & foot; tentacles, usually with suckers

Shell usually internal; “cuttlebone” of Sepia provides support and floating

Squids = elongated body, fins & “jet propulsion” for fast swimming

“Brain” in brain case

Separate sexes with courtship displays

63
Q

Characteristics of the Phylum Annelida?

“annel = ringed”

A

Fan worms, bristle worms, earthworms & leeches (16,500 species)​

Bilateral symmetry and segmented body, coelomates​

Body covered with chaetae (bristles used for movement)​

Marine, fresh water and terrestrial species.​

Sexual reproduction (some able to regenerate).​

64
Q

Coelomate body plan advantages for Phylum Annelida?

A
  • Hydrostatic skeleton
  • Transport of excretory and sexual products
65
Q

Metameric segmentation body plan advantages for Phylum Annelida?

A

Allow independent movement of different portions of muscles

66
Q

Body covered with chaetae body plan advantages for Phylum Annelida?

A

Bristles help with movement

67
Q

What are the three traditional classes of Annelida taxonomy?

A

Class: Polychaeta​

Class: Oligochaeta​

Class: Hirudinea

68
Q

What are the characteristics of Class Polychaeta in Annelida taxonomy? (Traditional classification)

A

Many bristles
Marine annelids
Mobile and Sedentary species

69
Q

What are the characteristics of Class Oligochaeta in Annelida taxonomy? (Traditional classification)

A

Terrestrial and aquatic annelids
Few bristles

70
Q

What are the characteristics of Class Hirudinea in Annelida taxonomy? (Traditional classification)

A

Ectoparasites or predators​

Few bristles​

Some blood suckers

71
Q

What are the new genetic evidence/classification groups in Annelida taxonomy?

A

Clade: Errantia​

Mobile marine predators​

​

Clade: Sedentaria​

Marine sedentary worms​

Earthworms​

Leeches​

72
Q

What are characteristics of the Errantia (Annelida species)?

“Errant = travelling”

A

Marine species​

Predators crawl on or burrow in the seafloor​

Well defined head with eyes and jaws​

Each body segment with prominent parapodia​

Sexual reproduction with separate sexes

73
Q

What are characteristics of the Sedentaria (Annelida species)?

A

Aquatic or terrestrial species​

Earthworms are burrowers​

Lug/fan worms are filter feeders​

Leeches are ectoparasites or predators​

Parapodia small or not present and few chaetae​

Regeneration​

Hermaphrodites​

74
Q

What is the function of the Cladogram phylogenetic tree type?

A

Cladogram - Node position indicates relative time but branch lengths arbitrary

75
Q

What is the function of the phylogram phylogenetic tree type?

A

Phylogram - Branch lengths represent amount of change

76
Q

What is the function of the dendrogram (ultrametric) phylogenetic tree?

A

Dendrogram (Ultrametric) - Nodes associated with specific geological time

LEC 142 - Zoology (2 decks)

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